遠東學報第二十四卷第四期 中華民國九十六年十二月出版
認知因素與英語能力
Cognitive Abilities and Language Proficiency
吳伶芳
輔英科技大學語言教育中心
摘
要
本研究探討(1)認知能力與英語能力的關係;(2)推理思考能力中，影響英文
程度最重要的因素;(3)認知能力如何影響技職學生的英語學習。研究對象為輔
英科技大學 279 位護理系、外語系與醫技系一年級學生。研究工具為多益
(TOEIC BRIDGE)英語能力測驗與推理思考能力測驗。研究結果發現，外語系
學生與醫技系學生的推理思考能力測驗，結果無顯著差異，但是多益英語能
力測驗的成績，外語系學生比醫技系學生佳，護理系學生推理思考能力與英
語能力的表現，皆遜於外語系與醫技系學生。推理思考能力各分項測驗中，
語文測驗成績與英語能力有顯著相關，非語文測驗與英語能力則無顯著相
關。研究結果建議將認知能力融入課程計畫與教學中，才能了解學生的個別
差異，激發學生的學習動機，進而提高英文程度｡
關鍵字: 英語能力、認知因素、多益英語能力測驗
349
遠東學報第二十四卷第四期 中華民國九十六年十二月出版
Lin-Fang Wu,
Language Education Center, Fooyin University
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study is to investigate (1) Are cognitive abilities
predictive factors of language proficiency? (2) What is the paramount variable
factor affect language proficiency among cognitive abilities? (3) How do cognitive
abilities influence second language learning among college students? Subjects in
this study were 279 first –grade foreign language, medical technology, and nursing
department students. Results show that cognitive abilities had significant effect on
foreign language prof
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
.Th
ou
g
ht
h
er
e
s
ul
t
sofc
ogn
i
t
i
vea
bi
l
i
t
i
e
sdi
dn
’
ts
h
ow
significant difference between medical technology majors and foreign language
majors, foreign language majors perform better than medical technology majors in
their foreign language learning. Th
os
epa
r
t
i
c
i
pa
n
t
si
nnu
r
s
i
ngma
j
ordi
dn
’
tpe
r
f
or
m
as well as the other two majors in their cognitive abilities and also in their foreign
language proficiency. Results of the study will suggest that results of cognitive test
should be taken into account to tailor instruction and classroom environment, and
then enhance learning motivation and language performance.
Keywords: cognitive abilities, language proficiency, TOEIC BRIDGE
350
遠東學報第二十四卷第四期 中華民國九十六年十二月出版
results of this study will help teachers
INTRODUCTION
English has become an international language
understand the psycholinguistic aspects
for acquiring new information with the dawning of
about foreign language learning and then
electronic age. The importance of learning a foreign
incorporate the theory with the classroom
language is far more important than the last few
activities.
decades. Several researchers spent lot of time and
Educational
psychology,
energy attempting to investigate different variables
psycholinguistic, and practical teaching will
affecting second language learning. Nevertheless,
make the foreign language learning more
factors
effective.
affecting
complicated.
language
In
learning
addition
to
is
very
curriculum
Literature Review
implementation, psycholinguistic variables affecting
Styles and Language Learning
the process of language learning has always been the
topic
language
experts
focused
on,
such
The term learning style is defined as composite
as
of characteristics cognitive, affective, physiological
intelligence, motivation, attitudes, and personality
factors that serve as relatively, stable indicators of
factors.
how a learner perceives, interacts with, and responds
In this study, the researcher will
investigate
how
the
cognitive
to the learning environment [1]. Learning style is a
factors
blend of cognitive, affective, and behavioral elements
a
f
f
e
c
t
i
ngl
e
a
r
ne
r
s
’f
or
e
i
gnl
a
ng
ua
gel
e
a
r
ni
ng
.
[2]. Recent research suggests that learning style has a
A total of 279 first-year students of the
s
i
gn
i
f
i
c
a
n
ti
nf
l
u
e
n
c
eonas
t
u
de
n
t
’
sc
h
oi
c
eofl
e
a
r
n
i
ng
nursing, foreign language, and medical
strategies, and both styles and strategies affect
learning outcomes. Learning styles can be defined as
technology department at Fooyin University
the followings: field independence vs. dependence;
participated in this study. After a placement
analytic vs. global; collaborative vs. competitive;
test, they were grouped into different levels
participant vs. avoidant; the right-brain learners vs.
classes for teaching purposes. At the end of
the left-brain learners [3]. The Myers-Briggs Types
the semester, all the subjects will be given
indicator [4] contributes four more dimensions to
learning style: extraversion vs. introversion; sensing
Cognitive Abilities Test in Chinese. Data
vs. intuition; thinking vs. feeling, and judging vs.
collection was conducted by the author with
perceiving.
the assistance of several English teachers
Three instruments assess learning style. The
and then underwent a series of statistical
Learning Style Inventory—Primary version [5] for
analysis by using the Statistical Packages for
children in kindergarten through grade two is a
pictorial questionnaire; The Learning Style Inventory
the Social Science. Descriptive statistics and
(LSI)[6] for youth in grades 3-12 is a self- report
one way Annova will be performed to
questionnaire that identifies 22 elements (LSI)
analyze the correlation between language
relating to the environment, emotion, sociological,
proficiency and cognitive abilities. The
physical, and psychological preferences of the
individual; and the Productivity Environmental
351
遠東學報第二十四卷第四期 中華民國九十六年十二月出版
Preferences Survey.
Carroll [11] proposed that the components of foreign
language aptitude can be defined as the following:
phonetic coding ability, grammatically sensitivity,
Language Learning strategies
Learning strategies are the basic tools for active,
memory ability, and inductive language learning
self-directed involvement needed for developing L2
ability. However, some authors feel that language
communicative ability [7]. Research has shown that
aptitude is a relatively invariant characteristic of the
more effective language learners use more and better
individual, not subject to easy modification by
learning strategies than do poorer language learners
learning [12].
[8]. In addition, research also showed that more
language can be improved somewhat through training,
effective language learners perform well in each of
still
the four language skills [9]. Rubin suggested that the
interrelationship between aptitude and motivation.
good language learner is a willing and accurate
Motivation
guesser;
to
frequently in regard to second language learning.
communicate and willing to make mistakes in order
Gardner and Lamber [13] have isolated two kinds of
to learn or communicate; focuses on form by looking
motivation: instrumental and integrative.
has
a
strong
persevering
drive
others
Others have
have
is
the
pointed
second
demonstrated
to
the
variable
that
intricate
mentioned
for patterns; takes advantages of all practice
Macnamara [14] mentioned that the essential
opportunities; monitors his or her own speech and
difference between a classroom and the street as a
that of others; and pay attention to meaning. Oxford
place to learn a language is motivation. Francis[15]
[2] indicated that language learning strategies can be
feels that students will learn to do what they
classified, explained, and exemplified in six coherent
themselves exert themselves to do. Cooper[16] also
groups. The six strategy groups are labeled memory,
emphasizes with proper motivation, the learner may
cognitive, comprehension, metacognitive, affective,
become an active investigator of the nature of the
and social. The first three groups are known as
language to be learned. Opportunity is the third
“
di
r
e
c
t
”s
t
r
a
t
e
g
i
e
s
,be
c
a
u
s
et
he
ydi
r
e
c
t
l
yi
n
v
ol
v
et
h
e
variable mentioned above. The good language learner
subject matter, in this case the target language to be
takes and creates opportunities to practice what he
l
e
a
r
n
e
d;t
h
el
a
s
tt
h
r
e
eg
r
ou
psa
r
ec
a
l
l
e
d“
i
n
di
r
e
c
t
”
has learned while the poorer learner passively does
s
t
r
a
t
e
g
i
e
s
,be
c
a
us
et
h
e
y don’
tdi
r
e
c
t
l
yi
nv
ol
v
et
h
e
what is assigned him. The good language learner gets
subject matter itself, but are essential to language
involved with foreign language movies, joins foreign
learning nonetheless. Chamot and Kupper [10]
language clubs, listens to T.V. or the radio outside
mentioned that successful learners tend to select
class. It is clearly difficult to separate these three
strategies that work together well in a highly
variables since they do impinge together.
orchestrated way, tailored to the requirement of the
language task. These learners can easily explain the
Aptitude
strategies they use and why they employ them [7].
complexes
&
individual
differences in second language learning
Age-related differences in development and
Characteristics of a good language learner
individual differences in cognitive abilities are all
Rubin [8] mentioned that good language
important predicting factors of successful second
learning is said to depend on at least three variables:
language
aptitude, motivation, and opportunity, and strategies.
352
learning.
Researchers
indicated
that
遠東學報第二十四卷第四期 中華民國九十六年十二月出版
motivation and individual differences in aptitude
Methodology
have been shown to correlate highly with variation in
Participants & Context
second language acquisition. Stankov [17] suggests
The subjects involved in this study compromised
that among adults and high-IQ groups, abilities are
279 students majoring in foreign languages, medical
better differentiated. Similarly, the abilities for adults
and
successful
language
learners
are
technology and nursing at
more
Southern Taiwan. The respondents consisted 234
differentiated than for children and less successful
females and forty-five males with an average age of
adults [18]. He also proposed that cognitive resources
18-19 and their first language is Mandarin Chinese.
(e.g. attention, working memory, short-term memory,
They place at a low-medium level in language ability
long-term memory, basic speed processing speed)
and have received at least four years of formal
implemented cognitive process drawn on by primary
instruction in the English language. At the time of
abilities involved in language-task performance (e.g.,
pattern
recognition,
phonological
speed
working
of
memory,
processing
Fooyin University in
this research project, they were taking one required
in
English course- four hours per week. This project
grammatical
was implemented in the general required English
sensitivity). These abilities themselves can be
course which aims to enable teachers to understand
grouped into aptitude complexes which represent
h
ow s
t
u
de
nt
s
’c
ogn
i
t
i
v
ea
bi
l
i
t
i
e
sa
f
f
e
c
t
i
ng t
h
e
i
r
combination of aptitude variables that jointly
language learning. It was stressed that the results
influence learning in some particular situations [19].
would not affect their English course grades. The
Harley and Hart [20] found that aptitude
distribution of the respondents is listed in table 1.
predicted successful learning for pre-critical-period
Table 1
early-immersion students whereas post-critical-period
Samples Distribution
Foreign
late-i
mme
r
s
i
ons
t
u
de
n
t
’
sl
e
a
r
ni
n
gwa
ss
i
gn
i
f
i
c
a
n
ta
n
d
Medical
Nursing
Total
Department language
technology
ability. Another individual difference is implicit and
Frequency
87
97
95
279
explicit learning. Robinson [18] has suggested that
Percent
31.2%
34.8%
34.1%
100%
positively related to measures of language analytic
implicit and explicit are two distinct modes of adult
learning. Implicit means unintentional, inaccessible
Research Questions
to awareness as revealed in accurate induction of the
1. Are cognitive abilities predictive factors of
rules of the letter display in the memorize-only
language proficiency?
condition. Explicit means intentional, accessible to
2. What is the paramount variable affect language
awareness
proficiency among cognitive abilities ?
as
revealed
by
the
often
poorer,
performance of subjects asked to find the rules.
3. How do cognitive abilities influence second
Nevertheless, De Graff [21] found that aptitude
language proficiency among Junior College students?
positively affect learning of both an artificial and a
natural language in an implicit as well as an explicit
Instruments
condition.
1. The placement test
TOEFIC BRIDGE (The test of English for
International communication) was used as an
353
遠東學報第二十四卷第四期 中華民國九十六年十二月出版
English language proficiency test. Placement of
the assistance of several English teachers at Fooyin
students into levels was based on the test scores.
University. A cognitive abilities test was distributed
The test is composed of 100 multiple-choice
to the participating students during their regular
questions divided into two sections. The first part
English classes at the beginning of the fall semester.
of the test is listening comprehension, including
The researcher then conducted a series of statistical
fifty questions. The second section covers reading
analyses on the collected data by using the Statistical
and grammar and makes up the other fifty
Packages
questions.
frequencies, means, standard deviation, one way
for
the
Social
Science,
including
Annova and Pearson product-moment correlation.
2. Cognitive abilities Test
A Chinese cognitive abilities test was designed by
One way Annova was used to compare cognitive
Lee-Jane Ueng and published by Psychological
abilities and language proficiency among these three
Assessment Corporation. It was used to discover
majors students. Results were considered statistically
how cognitive abilities affect second language
significant at .05 level by one way Annova and .001.
learning among these three different majors
level. by Pearson product-moment correlation.
students. It covers six sections to investigate
s
t
u
de
n
t
s
’ i
n
t
e
l
l
i
g
e
n
c
e
, i
nc
l
u
di
ng g
e
ome
t
r
i
c
classification,
geometric
serial
completion,
Results and Discussion
semantic, antonym, casual inference, numerical
Cognitive Abilities and Language Proficiency
Table 1 shows that there is a positive correlation
and serial completion. It composed of 116
(.259) between foreign language proficiency and
questions and the test period is for 50 minutes.
cognitive abilities and the significance at the level
Procedures
of .000 by Pearson product –
moment correlation. The
participants with higher I.Q. will perform better in
At the beginning of September of 2006, the
placement test was administered to all of the
their
foreign language
Fooyin freshmen who were taking the general
cognitive
English courses as a requirement. Then the
parts-language abilities and non- language abilities.
students were assigned to different ability groups
According to the results, we can also get a conclusion
based on the scores of the English Ability Test,
that native language ability has a greater impact on
and then received different instructions in the new
foreign language learning than non-language abilities,
coming semester.
such as geometric, numerical, and serial completion.
abilities
test
learning.
is
The
divided
Chinese
into
two
The cognitive abilities test was conducted at
the end of the fall semester. Six classes selected
Table 1 Language Proficiency & Cognitive Abilities
from foreign languages, medical technology and
Pearson product-moment correlation
nursing department to serve as the subjects. Two
Foreign
Cognitive
Language
Non-Language
hundred and seventy nine students participated in
Language
Abilities
Abilities
Abilities
the Cognitive Abilities Test.
/I. Q.
Data Analysis
(Chinese)
TOEIC
. 259*
.257*
.199*
Sig
.000
.000
.001
Note: Correlation is significant at the .001 level
Data collection was conducted by the author with
354
遠東學報第二十四卷第四期 中華民國九十六年十二月出版
Comparing foreign language proficiency among
those whose majors are foreign language and medical
these three majors students
technology.
Table 3 Comparing cognitive abilities
Table 2 shows that foreign language proficiency
among these three majors students
among these three levels students has a significant
Department
difference at the level of .000 by one-way Annova
analysis.
Those
majored
in
foreign
language
Foreign
Medical
Nursing
P
Language
technology
54.9
45.0
.000
department performed much better than medical and
Cognitive abilities 53.9
nursing department in their foreign language learning.
(mean)
In addition, participants major in medical technology
Language Abilities 19.5
19.7
15.5
had higher TOEIC score than participants major in
Non-Language
35.2
29.3
nursing department. Among these participants, the
Abilities
34.3
student who got the maximum score whose major is
in foreign language department. The student who got
Conclusions
As suggested in the literature, cognitive abilities
minimum score whose major is nursing department.
Table 2
have a significant effect on foreign language
Comparing language proficiency among
proficiency. The more the learners have aptitude, the
these three majors students
Majors
TOEIC
Minimum
Maximum
faster the learners will acquire their second language.
P-value
In 2001, Robinson indicated that individual abilities
(mean)
Foreign
108.8
78
164
or aptitude, awareness and age are important l
e
a
r
n
e
r
’
s
.000
variables. The results of this study indicated that
Language
Medical
96.8
76
136
89.1
64
132
language proficiency and cognitive abilities correlate
significantly at the level of .000 by Pearson
Technology
Nursing
product-moment correlation. We can conclude that
cognitive abilities and language proficiency had
Comparing cognitive abilities among these three
positive
majors students
Table 3 shows that cognitive abilities among
c
oe
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
ti
s
n
’
ta
sh
i
g
ha
swes
u
ppos
e
.I
na
ddi
t
i
on
,
relationship,
though
the
correlation
native language abilities had more effectual influence
these three majors students have a significant
on foreign language proficiency than non-language
difference at the level of .000 by one way Annova
abilities, such as geometric and numerical abilities.
analysis. Those majored in Medical Technology have
Another important finding is that cognitive abilities
higher I.Q. than the other students majored in
among these three majors had significant difference.
Nursing and Foreign Language departments. Though,
However, the Scheffe procedure revealed that
medical technology majors had higher score in
cognitive abilities had no significant difference
cognitive abilities test than foreign language majors.
between those foreign language majors and medical
Nevertheless, the Scheffe procedure reveals that
technology majors. In addition, the results also
cognitive abilities had no significant difference
showed that those foreign language majors whose
between foreign language majors and medical
language proficiency is better than the others. We can
technology majors. It also revealed that nursing
conclude that students with higher I.Q. will learn
majors whose cognitive abilities are far below than
355
遠東學報第二十四卷第四期 中華民國九十六年十二月出版
foreign language easily. However, students with
[2] Oxford, R.L.
,“
La
ngu
a
g
el
e
a
r
n
i
ng s
t
r
a
t
e
g
i
e
s
:
higher I.Q. will not definitely perform better
Wh
a
te
v
e
r
yt
e
a
c
h
e
rs
h
ou
l
dk
n
ow.
” Ne
w Yor
k:
language proficiency than the students with lower I.Q.
Newbury House/ Harper& Row, 1990.
[
3] Pa
r
r
y
, T. S.
,“
Th
er
e
l
a
t
i
on
s
h
i
p of s
e
l
e
c
t
e
d
unless their cognitive abilities had significant
difference.
dimensions of learner cognitive style, aptitude, and
Language
and
general intelligence factors to selected foreign
complicated procedure. Cognitive ability is just one
language proficiency tasks of second –year
factor in the prediction of success of foreign language
s
t
u
de
n
t
s of Spa
n
i
s
ha
tt
he s
e
c
on
da
r
yl
e
v
e
l
.
”
learning. Researchers should take into account the
Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Ohio State
relation of attitudes, motivation, learning strategies,
University, Columbus, OH, 1984.
learning
learning
styles,
predispositions
is
emotional
to
second
a
long
time
characteristics,
language
[
4]My
e
r
s
,I
,
.“
My
e
r
s
-Briggs Type Indicator. Palo
and
Al
t
o”
,CA:Con
s
u
l
t
i
n
gPs
y
c
h
ol
og
i
s
t
sPress, 1978.
learning.
However, the language aptitude test can help foreign
[5] Perri, J.,. Primary version: Learning style
language teachers tailor the instruction and classroom
i
n
v
e
n
t
or
y
.J
a
ma
i
c
a
,NY:“
Le
a
r
n
i
ngSt
y
l
e
”Ne
t
wor
k,
environment to the learners. They should devote
St
.J
oh
n
’
sUni
v
e
r
s
i
t
y
,1981.
much more time to understand the individual
[
6]Du
n
n
,R.
,Dun
n
,K.
,& Pr
i
c
e
,
.“
Ma
nu
a
l
:Le
a
r
n
i
ng
differences and other pertinent variables to adjust
s
t
y
l
ei
nv
e
nt
or
y
.
”La
we
r
e
n
c
e
,K.
S.Pr
i
c
eSy
s
t
e
ms
,
their teaching.
1985.
[
7]O’
Ma
l
l
e
y
,J
.
M.
,& Ch
a
mot
,A.
U.
,
.“
Le
a
r
n
i
n
g
Concluding Remarks
s
t
r
a
t
e
g
i
e
s i
n s
e
c
on
d l
a
ngu
a
g
e a
c
qu
i
s
i
t
i
on
s
.
”
This study examined the relationship between
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990.
cognitive abilities and language proficiency. It
[
8]Ru
bi
n
,J
.
,Wh
a
tt
h
e“
GoodLa
n
gu
a
g
eLe
a
r
n
e
r
”
indicated that cognitive abilities have an influential
Can Teach Us. TESOL Quarterly, 9,1, 41-51,1975.
effect on language proficiency. The results of
[9] Tyacke, M., & Mendelsohn, D., Student needs:
Cognitive abilities test can help the language
“
Cogn
i
t
i
v
ea
s we
l
la
sc
ommun
i
c
a
t
i
v
e
.
” TESL
instructors find the potential learners. Language
Canada Journal, Special Issue 1, 171-183,1986.
instructors should take into account motivation,
[
10]
. Ch
a
mot
, A.
U.
, & Ku
ppe
r
. L.
,“
Le
a
r
ni
ng
cognitive abilities, learning strategy as well as other
s
t
r
a
t
e
g
i
e
s i
n f
or
e
i
gn l
a
ng
u
a
g
e pr
of
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
.
”
learne
r
s
’variables. Further research should continue
Modern Language Journal, 65,24-35, 1989.
to explore the integration of cognitive abilities and
[11] Carroll, J. B., Cognitive Abilities in Foreign
language learning programs. Then those with high IQ
La
n
gu
a
g
e Apt
i
t
u
de
:Th
e
na
n
d Now.“
La
ngu
a
ge
or low IQ will acquire their second language
Apt
i
t
u
deRe
c
ons
i
de
r
e
d.
”Ne
wJ
e
r
s
e
y
:Pr
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