Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz., 1996, 15 (1), 237-249
Special challenges of maintaining
wild animals in captivity:
a Southern African perspective
L.P. COLLY *, R. B E N G I S ** and G.K. B R Ü C K N E R ***
Summary: The authors summarise the issues of concern in game ranching,
and the challenges involved in maintaining and utilising wild animals. The
more intensive farming of ostriches and crocodiles is discussed. An indication
of regulatory controls on the movement and possession of wild animals is
given. Institutions concerned with aspects of wildlife care, rehabilitation and
research are described.
KEYWORDS: Aquatic animals - Cheetahs - Convention on International
Trade in Endangered Species - Crocodiles - Game legislation - Meat
hygiene - International Animal Health Code - International Aquatic
Animal Health Code - Office International des Epizooties — Ostriches —
Ranching - Wildlife - World Trade Organisation.
INTRODUCTION
The widely-varying climate and topography in Africa have emphasised a broad
division of the continent into North, West, Central, East and Southern regions. Until
recently, the political situation precluded overt contact between the Republic of South
Africa (RSA) and many other countries in Africa, and only now is this situation being
normalised. Any future surveys are best served by the above broad divisions. In the
RSA, the new dispensation has led to a redefinition of internal provincial boundaries,
with concomitant changes in the responsibilities of statutory veterinary and nature
conservation bodies. Despite this state of flux and readjustment, the laws applicable
to the previous provincial boundaries are legal and enforceable within the redefined
areas.
For the purposes of this paper, the term 'captivity' refers to nominally fenced areas
such as National Parks, Nature Reserves and Game Ranches; zoological gardens,
except for some breeding out-stations, are excluded.
The following aspects of farming with wildlife now form part of agribusiness:
breeding, harvesting and sale of game; breeding for commercial purposes (ostrich
* P.O. B o x 2 6 0 4 , K n y s n a 6 5 7 0 , R e p u b l i c of S o u t h Africa.
** Private B a g X 1 3 8 , Pretoria 0 0 0 1 , Republic of South Africa.
*** P.O. B o x 12, S k u k u z a 1350, Republic of South Africa.
238
[Struthio camelus] and crocodile [Crocodylus
wilderness trails, etc.
niloticus]);
hunting, game viewing,
These aspects, together with regulatory controls, are discussed below.
REGULATORY CONTROLS
The increased demand for transparency between trade partners, in respect of
sanitary measures for the international movement of animals and animal products, has
placed a new emphasis on the restrictions imposed on non-domestic species to
facilitate the trade in animals and animal products of domestic species.
Although the trade in non-domestic species might not always be the primary drive
to initiate negotiations for trade between countries, the possible effect of the presence
of wild animals on the occurrence of disease in the country of origin is almost always
taken into consideration during the process of risk analysis. Wild animals, such as the
African buffalo (Syncerus caffer), play a prominent role on the African continent in the
transmission of diseases, such as foot and mouth disease (FMD) and corridor disease
(theileriosis) (5), while various wildlife species act as vectors or reservoirs for diseases
such as rabies, African swine fever (ASF) and bovine malignant catarrh. It can thus
be expected that trade partners will insist on receiving assurances that the country of
origin has taken sufficient precautions to prevent the spread of diseases from wild
animal vectors to the domestic counterpart intended for export.
The free movement of wild animal species internationally, and within the national
borders of a country, is furthermore restricted by international conventions and
agreements such as CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species
of Wild Fauna and Flora), and by restrictions imposed on the introduction or the
movement of undesirable (e.g. exotic and/or carrier) species, into and from specific
areas, by the Nature Conservation authorities within countries. The general perception
thus created is that restrictions are imposed by various regulatory authorities to
maintain wild animals in captivity and thus facilitate the farming and
commercialisation of domestic species. Although international organisations such as
the Office International des Epizooties (OIE) have done much to prove the contrary,
the perception is certain to persist that commercial game farming (especially in South
Africa) is permissible, provided that this does not constitute a risk or a threat to
commercial stock farming in the vicinity (H. Ebedes, personal communication, 1995).
For instance, the OIE has established the objective of conserving the economic,
scientific and cultural resources represented by wild mammals, and preserving the
equilibrium between species (6), while countries such as the RSA have in recent years
liberalised previous restrictive legislation in favour of game farming (3).
The restrictions imposed on the free movement of wild animals, thereby favouring
the maintenance of these animals in captivity, must be evaluated against the need and
the honest attempt by most regulatory bodies to ensure the continuation of commercial
livestock farming while at the same time creating opportunities for the establishment
of game farming and the conservation of indigenous wildlife species.
239
RESTRICTIONS IMPOSED ON THE FREE MOVEMENT
OF WILD ANIMALS
Veterinary restrictions
The general sentiment expressed in international guidelines for the movement of
animals and animal products - such as the OIE International Animal Health Code and
the Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures of the World Trade
Organisation - is, contrary to general belief, that no restriction should be placed on the
movement or international trade of wild animals, provided that these animals satisfy
the following conditions:
a) they are free of the 'trade-sensitive' diseases particular to the species
b) they originate from an area free of the specific diseases (or certified free from
specific diseases before movement)
c) they present no risk of transmission of specific diseases to domestic stock.
The restrictions on the movement of wild animals are therefore imposed mostly as
result of the epidemiology and pathogenesis of a particular disease, rather than being
related to the animal itself.
The movement of wild pigs (Suidae), for example, from an area where A S F is
endemic and wild pigs are known to be carriers of the disease, will be unacceptable;
this is not true of the movement of wild pigs from an A S F free area (14). Similarly,
African buffalo will be allowed to move from an area which is free from F M D or
theileriosis to an area with similar status, but not from an area infected with either of
these diseases to a disease-free area (3). In both the above examples, the presence of
clinically-infected animals need not be proved, but it is accepted in the case of A S F
and FMD that wild pigs and buffalo, respectively, act as carriers in established
endemic areas irrespective of the occurrence of outbreaks of clinical disease. The same
principle holds true for the international movement of aquatic species. Legislation and
international guidelines - such as the OIE International Aquatic Animal Health Code
- are aimed at preventing the spread of diseases and unwanted pathogens to farmed
aquatic species, such as rainbow trout (Onchorhynchus
mykiss). In the RSA, for
instance, the Animal Diseases Act, 1984, sets out strict requirements to prevent the
introduction of uncertified salmonid ova, while the introduction of other unwanted
aquatic species is prohibited by the Agricultural Pests Act, 1983 (2).
The epidemiology of specific diseases can either facilitate or restrict the movement
of wild animals. The movement of wild animals is restricted in areas where these
animals are the primary cause for the presence of the disease or for a disease being
endemic, while movement is allowed outside these areas provided that sufficient
scientific evidence is available to demonstrate that the relevant wild animals in the area
pose no threat of disease transmission.
While control can be exercised over wild animals in captivity and the disease status
of these animals can be precisely monitored, this is not true for free-ranging wild
animals. The uncertainty of the status of a particular disease in free-ranging animals
in a potential high-risk area has a direct effect on the restrictions imposed on the legal
movement of these animals within or from the area.
240
In the case of FMD, for instance, it is debatable whether a buffer zone of 20 km,
for example, between buffalo and domestic livestock is more effective in preventing
the spread of disease than a zone of only 5 km. In the case of ASF, the line of
demarcation between an infected zone and the disease-free zone can be scientifically
determined by monitoring the presence or absence of infected tampans (Ornithodoros
moubata), as has already been established in the RSA (14).
The degree of uncertainty in existing knowledge on the epidemiology of particular
diseases where wild animals act as vectors, has a direct influence on the restrictions
imposed on the movement of wild animals. There is therefore a direct linear
relationship between the degree of restrictions imposed (i.e. uncertainty) on the
movement of and trade in wild animals, and existing knowledge of the epidemiology
of diseases for which wild animals act as carriers or reservoirs.
Restrictions in terms of international conventions
The fundamental principles of CITES, as outlined in Article II of the Convention,
are to inhibit the free movement of endangered species and to ensure the survival of
threatened species (13). While the transmission of diseases through movement or trade
in wild animals is not the main purpose of CITES, the sentiment of the Convention
favours the maintenance of wild animals in captivity or in a free-ranging state to
ensure the survival of particular species. The prevention of exposing such animals to
unwanted disease pathogens, via uncontrolled movement, is therefore also implied in
the Convention.
GAME RANCHING
In Southern Africa, game ranching has become an important aspect of agriculture
and ecotourism. Recent figures provide an insight into the importance of game
ranching to the general economy (through venison, hunting, trophies, capture and
tourism).
In the RSA, an estimated annual income of US$140 million is generated from some
8,500 farms on 15 million hectares of private land (H. Ebedes, personal
communication, 1995).
The development of game ranching has enabled farmers to utilise areas less suited
to domestic livestock, wildlife being better adapted to harsh climatic and veld
conditions. Many species (e.g. browsers) do not compete with domestic stock and they
can thus be farmed together.
Internal parasites do not appear to be a problem, despite the impracticability of
preventive treatment; heavy parasite burdens appear to be commensal in game.
Disease transmission is limited in areas with a low level of endemic disease. Spread
of diseases such as FMD and theileriosis in buffalo is minimised by controls on the
movement of infected buffalo, livestock and game. With the development of game
ranching it became necessary to amend legislation to permit ownership of game,
subject to approved fencing. Ownership has become an important factor in successful
game ranching.
241
With the aims of conservation (to increase populations), sustained utilisation (over
a long period) and harvesting (to protect the habitat and stabilise a population),
attention must increasingly be paid to the following elements:
a) ensuring community involvement and benefits (a long-term commitment towards
protecting the environment)
b) availability of adequate and suitable food sources, water and minerals
c) correct fencing to prevent breakout (in larger species, e.g. elephants [Loxodonta
africana], this is extremely important in preventing conflict with adjoining farms,
habitation, equipment, crops and plantations; rhinoceros, for example, appear to be
very susceptible to poisoning with creosote [12] which is commonly present in treated
wood bomas [enclosures])
d) study of population dynamics to ensure a viable population (minimum herd size,
sex ratio, social structure, prevention of inbreeding, overall stocking rates)
e) preventing inter-species conflict (e.g. between rhinoceros and elephants)
f) reduction of stress to ensure a healthy breeding population (in recent years
extensive research has been conducted into the use of medium- and long-acting
tranquillisers in mass capture and translocation of game; losses have often been
dramatically reduced - from 20% to 2 % in springbok [Antidorcas marsupialis], and
from 6% to 1% in gemsbok [Oryx gazella] - and when released the animals generally
adapt more easily to their new surroundings [H. Ebedes, personal communication,
1995]).
With experience, it is now feasible to translocate large numbers of elephants,
captured initially in groups of 6-10 animals with a shoulder height of up to 2.4 m (7).
The importance of preventing stress cannot be over-emphasised, and due care must
be taken in assessing ambient temperature and humidity, handling animals
professionally, showing concern for social structures and in the correct use of
tranquillisers (8).
Specialised harvesting techniques have been developed to complement the
implementation of these aims. Conventional hunting has a low impact, provided that
selection for age and sex does not skew the population, especially as trophy hunting
is financially very rewarding. Night-shooting of medium-size antelope (e.g. impala
[Aepyceros melampus]), using spotlights, enables cropping at fairly close range with
minimal damage to the carcass and a reasonable yield.
Commercial units can use helicopters in daylight for some species (e.g. blesbok
[Damaliscus dorcas phillipsi], which run in single file) but capital investment is high.
This technique is adopted in the Kruger National Park (KNP) in the RSA, for cropping
of elephants and buffalo. With elephants, the group is cut off by the helicopter and the
matriarch is shot first, rapidly followed by the rest of the group. Succinyldicholine
chloride is no longer used in this species, due to slow knockdown and possible distress
to the animals. Buffalo are shot using a dartgun containing a massive dose (1.0 g) of
succinyldicholine chloride; they are thus immobilised within one minute and are
brain-dead within three minutes. The head-bobbing running action of buffalo precludes
the safe use of a rifle.
Any drug residue is rapidly metabolised in the carcass and the meat is safe for
consumption. The use of 'capture corrals' (constructed of plastic sheeting) allows
close-range shooting. This is particularly applicable to very dense bush and,
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conversely, very open areas where a 'pop-up' corral at a water or feed point is used.
A special technique for hippopotamus (Hippopotamus
amphibius) is to shoot the
animal in the water, early in the day after night-time grazing. Although the body sinks,
rapid visceral fermentation causes it soon to float for recovery.
In all harvesting techniques, it is vital for support vehicles to be close at hand to
rapidly exsanguinate and eviscerate carcasses for immediate transport to the slaughter
and refrigeration facility.
Where lions (Panthera leo) have broken out of a fenced area and are harassing
livestock, they can be successfully immobilised using a dartgun and returned to the
enclosure. A large carcass is anchored within a bush corral, limiting access. The
vehicle or platform opposite the entrance allows darting, with a silent dartgun, after
the lions have settled down to feed (often the whole pride can be immobilised).
VETERINARY PUBLIC HEALTH ASPECTS OF
GAME RANCHING
Traditionally in Southern Africa, carcasses from wild animals have not been
subjected to formal meat inspection procedures. Although recent changes have
transferred ownership of game to the landowner, there are no statutory requirements
for meat inspection.
Extensive surveys of game carcasses have not identified significant zoonotic
diseases. Contamination of the carcass by visceral enteropathogens during evisceration
or through bullet damage would be the main public health concern.
In the RSA, only two categories of wildlife are subject to compulsory routine meat
inspection, as follows:
a) All wildlife routinely culled in the KNP are subject to inspection primarily for
animal health reasons, as the KNP is the only area in the country where FMD is
endemic. This inspection serves to identify any epidemic outbreaks. More recently,
the introduction of two exotic and potentially zoonotic diseases - namely brucellosis
and tuberculosis - in the KNP has made this meat inspection much more
important.
b) Compulsory meat inspection is performed on all wildlife carcasses destined for
export, to ensure compliance with the veterinary public health requirements of the
importing country.
CARNIVORE BREEDING
Although managed in a more intensive manner than the game ranches described
above, the two breeding centres for cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) in the RSA - at de
Wildt (near Pretoria) and Kapama (Northern Transvaal) - form a microcosm of many
of the problems experienced in game farm management. The Price Forbes Chair of
Wildlife Diseases is closely associated with these two facilities (see below).
Problems encountered cover a wide spectrum of infectious diseases of felines,
including panleukopenia, calicivirus and herpesvirus infections, feline infectious
peritonitis, chronic gastritis caused by Helicobacter
spp. (D. Meitzer, personal
243
communication, 1995), internal parasites and fungal skin infections. The siting of these
breeding centres means that although tick infestation is a major problem, this is not
responsible for disease transmission.
Nutritional problems occur mainly in young animals (copper and thiamine
deficiency, and calcium/phosphorus imbalance). Preventive inoculations are routine,
but there is always a shadow of concern when non-domestic species are inoculated
with live virus vaccines. The endangered African wild dog (Lycaon pictus) is also the
subject of studies at both centres (and at a number of zoos), which it is hoped will lead
to a better understanding of the biology and thus help to ensure the survival of this
species. Recent problems in East Africa due to the occurrence of canine distemper in
lions, as well as the effect of this disease on the wild dog population, give rise to
concern that a situation might emerge similar to that which followed the appearance
of parvovirus.
This virus has caused problems when it has been necessary to use combination live
virus vaccines in non-domestic species, as immuno-suppression by parvovirus allowed
other modified viruses to cause overt disease. It is hoped that this will not occur should
distemper in felines become a significant disease.
Release of rehabilitated and hand-reared carnivores into the wild has seldom been
successfully achieved, mainly because most carnivores easily become habituated
(often imprinted) to human presence. This imprint or habit remains to a varying
degree, and thus the animal (especially the larger species) becomes a potential danger
to any human, with possible tragic consequences on both sides.
OSTRICH FARMING
Viable ostrich farming became possible in the RSA in the mid-19th century,
following the introduction of wire fencing and the growing of alfalfa. By the beginning
of the 20th century, ostrich farming was extremely profitable, and relied on feather
production and quality. This boom ended after World War I and lasted until the end
of World War II. The industry again became profitable in the 1960s, with an extension
to marketing of meat (fresh and dried), skins and leather products and by-products
other than feathers.
All exported meat products must be derived from specially registered A-grade
abattoirs, and are subject to full meat hygiene regulations. A system of accredited
ostrich farms has been established in the RSA, under which farmers who wish to
export internationally must maintain certain sanitary measures on their property to
qualify for export.
Developments in other countries (Zimbabwe, Tanzania, Australia, North America
and Europe) have necessitated increased research input to ensure competitiveness.
The problem areas encountered are described below.
Artificial incubation
Hatchability can vary considerably (40-90%). Temperature and humidity control are
paramount, as well as good management, from collection through storage to
incubation and hatching.
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Rearing of chicks
Semi-intensive and intensive rearing also demand high management input to ensure
good hygiene, correct population density and appropriate presentation of food.
Nutrition and disease
Recent studies have led to a better understanding of nutritional requirements for the
maintenance of sound growth and good health. Additional calcium is an important
factor, due to the total dependence of the ostrich on strong, straight legs.
The long food retention time of the ostrich (40 h compared with 7 h for the chicken),
which is due to a long large intestine, requires a ration of greater bulk and higher
metabolic energy than that used for poultry, and which more closely resembles that
given to pigs and ruminants. Incorrect nutrition leads to various gastrointestinal and
metabolic problems.
Newcastle disease (ND) has recently led to severe loss in ostriches, coupled with
economic loss following quarantine and suspension of slaughtering. Vaccination
programmes have now to be instituted for both ND and influenza A virus infection.
Coprophagia (a normal occurrence) can lead to increased intestinal infections.
Metazoan infestations, if not treated, can result in high mortality.
Genetic selection
The relatively long period of domestication in the RSA has produced a much tamer
bird with better slaughter conformation and feather quality. Understandably, the export
of such genetic material is severely restricted, most overseas populations being derived
from Central and East African wild birds.
CROCODILE FARMING
Although crocodile farming has been developing in the RSA since the early 1980s,
the full potential of this industry has perhaps not been reached. This is partly due to
market forces; but also, importantly, harvesting from the wild is not permitted. Initial
breeding stock was caught in the wild, but subsequent population build-up was reliant
on artificial incubation and rearing. At present, a significant number of adult breeding
stock have matured. In Zimbabwe, by contrast, harvesting of eggs from the wild is the
main source of stock.
As in most farming with live animals, management plays a significant role in the
successful rearing and marketing of crocodiles and their products.
To maintain optimum growth, relatively high temperatures (30-35°C) are required
and, in most areas of the RSA, some form of 'controlled environment' housing is
necessary.
To ensure successful breeding, specific requirements for water depth, surface area,
water-to-land ratio and suitable nesting sites must be observed in the ponds. These
criteria minimise dominance by certain males and result in higher fertility.
245
Egg collection requires careful handling, and controls on incubation, temperature
and relative humidity are critical. Failure to ensure complete absorption of the yolk
predisposes hatchlings to infection.
Most disease problems occur within the first twelve months after hatching.
Salmonellosis (11), chlamydiosis (10) and poxvirus infection (9) are the most common
problems, while parasitic infestation is observed mainly in wild-caught stock.
Husbandry plays a significant role in predisposition to disease, and sanitation in the
'hot' houses is vital. Nutritional problems also occur, initiated by variation in the
quality of food. Many farmers utilise abattoir waste and other offal, poultry carcasses
and dead livestock. This variable supply predisposes animals to enteric infections and
nutritional imbalances. Quality food will always be an important factor in ensuring
maximum production and profit.
MARICULTURE
Along the coastline of the RSA, various laws protect marine life against
exploitation. The Sea Fishery Act, 1988 (4) controls activities in the oceans out to the
200 sea mile limit. Inshore activities fall under relevant provincial ordinances. By
definition, 'fish' includes all species of marine and estuarine fish, mammal and
invertebrate. Spear-fishing is licensed (underwater breathing apparatus not being
permitted). Bag limits are strictly controlled for all species. Importation of live fish is
also strictly controlled.
The National Parks Act, 1976 (1) controls areas where such parks extend onto the
seashore and into the sea.
Mariculture per se is limited by the nature of the Southern African coastline, which
has very few suitable bays and estuaries. At present, limited numbers of prawns
(Penaeus indicus and P. monodon), oysters (Ostrea spp.) and black mussels (Mytilus
sp.) are farmed.
WILDLIFE REHABILITATION
In all countries, fauna is troubled by aspects of development such as electrical
power lines, motorised vehicles and fencing. This has led to concern among
conservationists and the public for the welfare of wildlife. Nature conservation
authorities, veterinary practitioners, welfare bodies and zoological gardens have
naturally become receiving depots for the initial care of such distressed animals and
birds. This practice, public concern and the need for specialised care have led to the
development of rehabilitation centres. Present legislation controls the possession of
indigenous fauna, and approved centres are licensed to handle injured and orphaned
animals, and other cases.
Many of these centres are reliant on staff who are enthusiastic and well-meaning,
but are often untrained. In view of the need to train staff in wildlife handling
techniques, the Wildlife Group of the South African Veterinary Association has
proposed that minimum standards be established for rehabilitation centres. These will
be registered with nature conservation authorities, and will ensure adequate training of
246
staff, provision of correct housing and feeding, adequate veterinary input and
conditional release of animals (with identification).
The following are of special interest:
- the South African Centre for the Conservation of Coastal Birds has specialised
in the rehabilitation of oil-polluted penguins (Spheniscidae), many of which have
re-established breeding colonies (particularly following a major oil-spill off the west
coast of the R S A in 1995)
- the Chimfunshi Wildlife Orphanage (Zambia) cares for chimpanzees (Pan
troglodytes) orphaned as a result of illegal trade, and secures the release of these
animals into a semi-wild forested area where they can develop family groupings.
WILDLIFE GROUP OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN
VETERINARY ASSOCIATION
The Wildlife Group of the South African Veterinary Association is well-established,
and is composed of veterinarians specialised in wildlife and/or dedicated to
conservation. The emphasis has been on sustaining the interest of members, as well
as initiating an ongoing series of symposia on significant needs in the fields of wildlife
veterinary medicine and game ranching, the proceedings of which are published.
To date, these symposia have included the following (with published proceedings):
Selenium Deficiency; The Use of Tranquillisers in Wildlife; International Symposium
on Capture, Care and Management of Threatened Mammals; The African Elephant
(Loxodonta africana) as Game Ranch Animal; The Sable Antelope (Hippotragus
niger) as Game Ranch Animal; Rhinos (Rhinocerotidae) as Game Ranch Animals;
and The South African Coal, Oil and Gas Corporation Symposium on Wildlife
Rehabilitation.
The Zimbabwe Veterinary Association also has a Wildlife Group, which recently
organised a seminar on welfare aspects of the capture, holding and translocation of
wildlife species (February 1995).
PRICE FORBES CHAIR IN WILDLIFE DISEASE
Based at the Faculty of Veterinary Science of the University of Pretoria, the Price
Forbes Chair in Wildlife Disease - funded largely through World Wildlife (South
Africa) - supports the aims of the Faculty through its mission to foster wildlife
veterinary science, by contributing to the education of undergraduates, post-graduate
studies and continuing education of practising veterinarians, and by facilitating
communication between veterinarians and the wildlife fraternity. In this way, the Chair
contributes to the bio-diversity and sustained utilisation of natural resources in South
Africa.
PAN A F R I C A N A S S O C I A T I O N O F Z O O L O G I C A L G A R D E N S ,
AQUARIA AND BOTANICAL GARDENS
The Pan African Association of Zoological Gardens, Aquaria and Botanical Gardens
is similar in concept, goals and objectives to corresponding regional associations in the
Americas, Europe and other regions. The Association was formed to promote African
247
wildlife institutions, to support their development into true and effective centres of
conservation, to support conservation of species in the wild and to educate the public
on the need to conserve the diversity of nature. Inputs into aspects of the World Zoo
Conservation Strategy, with an emphasis on African species, are developing as
opportunities arise (captive breeding, artificial reproduction, genome resource
banking, research, etc.).
ENDANGERED WILDLIFE TRUST
The Endangered Wildlife Trust (EWT) is a non-governmental body with a mission
to conserve the diversity of species in Africa. To achieve this aim, the E W T funds
projects which will make a significant contribution in this direction, to prevent species
extinction, support appropriate management of species, and link conservation of the
habitat with species conservation.
The E W T is active throughout Southern Africa, directly supporting projects as well
as forming working groups. At present, the following Working Groups are active:
Vulture (Accipitridae) Study, Raptor Conservation, Highland Crane (wattled crane
[Bugeramus carunculatus], crowned crane [Balearic regalorium]), Poison. The E W T
also houses and assists the Wildlife Trade Monitoring Office (TRAFFIC). Studies on
the following species are currently being supported: pangolin (Manis
temminckii),
humpback dolphin (Sousa chinensis), wild dog, black rhinoceros (Diceros
bicornis),
otter spp. (Aonyx capensis, Lutra maculicollis), small-spotted cat (Felis
nigripes),
lesser kestrel (Falco naumanni), blue crane (Anthropoides paradisea), wattled crane
and blue swallow (Hirundo
atrocaerulea).
M A M M A L RESEARCH INSTITUTE
The Mammal Research Institute forms part of the University of Pretoria. Studies are
undertaken on the biology of species and on wildlife management, and post-graduate
degrees in Wildlife Management are offered.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to thank the many colleagues and others who freely gave
assistance in the preparation of this paper.
*
* *
248
LES PROBLÈMES SPÉCIFIQUES AU MAINTIEN EN CAPTIVITÉ DES ANIMAUX
SAUVAGES EN AFRIQUE AUSTRALE. - L.P. Colly, R. Bengis et G.K. Brückner.
Résumé : Les auteurs résument les problèmes particuliers liés à l'élevage du
gibier et aux défis que posent la conservation et l'utilisation d'animaux
sauvages. Ils discutent la question d'un élevage plus intensif des autruches et
des crocodiles et indiquent quels sont les contrôles réglementaires portant sur
la propriété et les mouvements des animaux sauvages. Ils décrivent les
organismes chargés de certains aspects de la réhabilitation et de la santé de ces
espèces sauvages, ainsi que de la recherche dans ce domaine.
MOTS-CLÉS : Animaux aquatiques - Autruches - Code sanitaire
international pour les animaux aquatiques — Code zoo-sanitaire international
- Convention sur le commerce international d'espèces menacées
d'extinction - Crocodiles - Elevage en brousse - Faune sauvage - Guépards
- Hygiène de la viande - Législation sur le gibier - Office international des
épizooties - Organisation mondiale du commerce.
*
DIFICULTADES ESPECIALES DEL MANTENIMIENTO DE ANIMALES
SALVAJES EN CAUTIVIDAD EN ÁFRICA AUSTRAL. - L.P. Colly, R. Bengis y
G.K. Brückner.
Resumen: Los autores resumen los temas de preocupación relacionados con la
producción a potrero de especies cinegéticas, así como los desafíos que se
plantean en el mantenimiento y explotación de dichos animales. Examinan las
posibilidades de una cría más intensiva de avestruces y cocodrilos. Señalan
también las grandes líneas del conjunto normativo que controla los
movimientos y posesión de animales salvajes, y describen las instituciones
implicadas en la investigación, cuidado y rehabilitación de la fauna salvaje.
PALABRAS CLAVE: Animales acuáticos - Avestruces - Cocodrilos Código Sanitario Internacional para los Animales Acuáticos - Código
Zoosanitario Internacional - Convención sobre el Comercio Internacional de
Especies Amenazadas — Fauna salvaje — Guepardos — Higiene de la carne Legislación de caza - Oficina Internacional de Epizootias — Organización
Mundial del Comercio - Producción ganadera a potrero.
*
* *
249
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