UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI
COLLEGE OF BIOLOGICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES
FACULTY OF SCIENCE
SPH 203: STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER
Prof. Bernard O. Aduda
Department of Physics
University of Nairobi
Reviewer: Prof. Joseph Otieno Malo
© 2004
SPH 203
STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER
INTRODUCTION
As the name suggests this course looks at matter (gases, liquids and solid) right from the
constituent atoms to the bulk behaviour we observe in ordinary conditions. It lays the
foundation for more advanced courses in Solid State Physics, Materials Science,
Thermodynamics, and Quantum Mechanics.
I have organized the course in three parts: Part I deals with the fundamentals and how the
diverse atomic arrangements manifest themselves in various forms and types of matter
with diverse properties. The three phases of matter are then discussed, with more
emphasis on gases and solids. Part II deals with introductory thermodynamics, whereas
Part III is concerned mainly with introductory quantum mechanics- which tends to
explore the behaviour of microscopic particles.
The overall aim of this course is to show that the bulk properties of matter depend on
structure at the atomic, molecular, microscopic, macroscopic levels. Armed with such
knowledge, the student should be able to choose and use various materials judiciously.
At the end of each lecture, there are a number of questions/problems, which you should
strive to solve to help you understand the concepts further. Strive also to refer to the
references cited at the end of each lecture in order to broaden your scope and
understanding.
Finally feel free to point out any errors you note in these lecture notes.
Bernard Odhiambo Aduda
Associate Professor, Department of Physics
Faculty of Science
University of Nairobi
August 2004.
CONTENT
PART I
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
PAGE
STRUCTURE AND PHASES OF MATTER
THE ATOM AND MOLECULE (MODELS)
Thomson’s model
Rutherford’s model
Bohr’s model
1
2
7
ATOMIC AND MOLECULAR BONDING
Ionic, Covalent, Metallic, Van der Waal, and mixed bonds
Bond strength, bond strength and melting point
13
18
PHASES OF MATTER
A: Gases
Kinetic theory and Equation of state of ideal gases
Maxwell-Boltzmann velocity distribution
Mean free path
Deviations from ideal gas laws
Specific heats of an ideal gas
23
27
30
31
35
B: Liquids
Surface tension
Phase transitions and phase diagrams
36
37
C: Solids
Characteristics of solids
Atomic arrangements- crystalline state
Classification of crystals
Atomic packing
Isomorphism
Polymorphism
Solid-liquid transition
Surface energy
Characterization of Solids
Principles of X-ray diffraction and practical x-ray diffraction
X-ray safety
39
40
41
43
45
46
46
47
48
51
54
METALS AND NON-METALS
Interatomic forces in solids
Mechanical properties
Elastic behaviour
Mechanical testing
58
61
62
64
Non-metals
68
FRACTURE AND OXIDATION
Fracture and types of fracture
Prevention of brittle fracture
Corrosion
75
77
77
PART II
6.
7.
8.
MACROSCOPIC DESCRIPTION OF SYSTEMS
(EXTENSIVE AND INTENSIVE VARIABLES)
Surroundings, State (thermodynamic) Variables, Boundaries
Equilibrium state
86
87
TEMPERATURE AND ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
Equilibrium states and the Zeroth law of thermodynamics
Measurement of temperature, isotherms, Equations of State
Scales of Temperature
88
90
91
REVERSIBLE, IRREVERSIBLE, QUASISTATIC AND ADIABATIC
PROCESSES
Thermodynamic reversibility
Work and volume changes
Bulk modulus and expansivity
95
96
98
PART III
9.
10.
INTRODUCTORY THERMODYNAMICS
INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM THEORY
THERMAL RADIATION AND ORIGINS OF QUANTUM THEORY
Origins of Quantum theory- A historical perspective
Black body radiation
Photoelectric effect
Heat Capacity
The Atomic Spectra (The hydrogen atom)
Wilson-Sommerfeldt Quantization rules
The Correspondence principle
Wave Mechanics
De Broglie’s hypothesis: - Particle-wave duality
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle
103
103
107
109
110
115
118
119
121
123
WAVE MECHANICS AND SCHROEDINGER EQUATIONS
Concepts of a wave function
Time-dependent Schroedinger’s equation for a free particle
Particle constrained in a box
Time independent Schroedinger’s equation
Expectation values and Ehrenfest’s Theorems
Degeneracy
128
128
131
136
136
137