CHURCH HISTORY: FROM THE CRUSADES TO THE 21ST CENTURY
WEEK 11: THE CHURCH DEFENSIVE – THE CRUSADES AND THE INQUISITION
SPEAKER’S NOTES
The Church and the World in the Year AD 1000
The great migration – from rural feudal estates to cities and towns, leading to population
growth (population in Europe doubled between 1000 and 1300)
The rise of monasteries, cathedrals, and universities – farming practices (draining swamps,
crop rotation) developed by monasteries led to growth of cities; cathedrals were built as a
response to the move to towns, but also aided the growth of towns; universities opened in
Paris (theology), Bologna (law and medicine), and Oxford
The growth of trade and crafts – better agriculture led to population growth; people moved to
cities looking for work; towns sustained trades (people to make farming tools, build
cathedrals, produce clothing, etc.); travel for trade and commerce increased
The emergence of kings and nations – as population moved from farms to towns, feudalism
disappeared and kings and nations emerged; power became centralized in nations like
England and France
The establishment of a strong papacy – Pope Gregory VII (1073-1085) ended practice of lay
investiture in which kings or lord appointed bishops and abbots; papacy became
independent and exercised power and influence throughout Europe
The Great Schism – split between East and West (1054)
The Crusades – Setting the Stage
Papal authority solidified in late 11th century – liberation from lay investiture, asserted
supreme power in the Church; only stable institution in the world (amid civil anarchy); a
unified system of parishes and monasteries loyal to the pope
Jerusalem – a strategic location of importance to many religions
Pilgrimage – a significant aspect of Christian life during the Middle Ages – especially
pilgrimage to the Holy Land; this was made impossible when Muslims gained control
(from 1071 on) of the Holy Land and the routes that led there, especially modern-day
Turkey, and would not allow Christians to travel through their lands
European military – as population grew (too many sons to inherit land), trade increased
(introduction to far-off places and beginnings of commerce), and rivalries between cities
developed, military power became important and necessary
Pope Urban II (pope 1088-1099) – at the request of the Byzantine emperor, called for a
crusade in 1096 to liberate Jerusalem from Muslim control; crusaders honored as
defenders of the faith; granted indulgences and earthly rewards: “Undertake this journey
for the remission of your sins, assured of the imperishable glory of the kingdom of
heaven” (Urban II). First crusade met with great success because of their leaders, Godfrey
of Lorraine, Baldwin, and County Raymond of Tolouse.
The Crusades – A Chronology
First Crusade – 1096-1102 – Liberation of Jerusalem (1099) - success
Second Crusade – 1147-1149 – Siege of Damascus - failure
Jerusalem Falls - 1187
Third Crusade – 1189-1192 – King Richard the Lion-hearted; Truce with Saladin
Fourth Crusade – 1201-1205 – Sack of Constantinople (1204); Christian vs. Christian: ‘Never
was so much booty taken in one city since the beginning of time” (Crusader Geoffrey
Villehardouin)
“The Children’s Crusade – 1212 – children sailed to the coast of Italy to take back the Holy
Land by love, rather than by force; merchants captured the children and sold them into
slavery
Fifth Crusade – 1218-1221 – Egypt; St. Francis of Assisi
Sixth Crusade – 1228-1229 – Restoration of Jerusalem (1229)
Jerusalem Falls – 1244
First Crusade of St. Louis – 1248-1254 – Egypt
Second Crusade of St. Louis – 1269-1272 – Tunisia
End of the Kingdom of Jerusalem - 1291
Military and Religious Orders
The Knights Templar – founded in 1119 by Hugh de Payns – “monks in arms;” followed
Rule of St. Benedict; wore white Cistercian habit with a red cross on it; “Thus in battle
they deck themselves out not in gold and silver, but with faith within and mail without, to
strike terror, not avarice, in the hearts of their adversaries” (St. Bernard of Clairvaux);
dissolved in 1312
The Knights of the Cross (Teutonic) – founded in 1190 to run the German hospital in the
Holy Land; followed the Augustinian Rule; became a military order in 1198 and tasked by
the pope to hold and secure Jerusalem; after the Crusades, were employed by European
rulers to protect their territory and conquer lands for Christendom; still exist today as a
charitable order
The Knights Hospitaller of St. John – founded in 1113 by Peter Gerard to aid sick pilgrims
and crusaders in Jerusalem, and later to provide them with an armed escort; wore a black
Benedictine habit with a white Maltese cross on it, later a white cross on a red background;
based on Rhodes from 1309 to 1522 and Malta 1530 to 1798; still active in many forms
today
The Albigensian Crusade
Albigensians – from French city of Albi; heresy that saw all material things, including the
body, as bad; response to lax clergy in southern France that lived a rich and sumptuous life
and neglected the gospel; started a renewal of poverty and simplicity; Albigensians took
this renewal to the extreme; small group called “the Perfect Ones;” some taught virtue of
suicide to be freed from this life, which is evil
Heresy – denial of a central aspect of the faith: the goodness of creation and sacredness of
human life
Pope Innocent III (1198-1216): “Heretics are to be overcome by reasoning, not by force.”
Sent Dominic de Guzman to preach in southern France and live an austere life, to tryt to
convince the Albigensians to return to the faith
Albigensian Crusade - one of Pope Innocent’s representatives was assassinated in 1208; he
called for a military crusade to defeat them; twenty years of fighting sent them
underground
Pope Gregory IX (1227-1241) – first compiler of Canon Law; in 1231, enforced law assigning
death penalty to heretics, entrusting this task to civil authority after heresy was determined
by church courts, led by the Dominicans; thus began the Papal Inquisition
The Papal Inquisition
Fear of Heresy – Christianity was the only stable institution in the Middle Ages; uniformity of
belief created a sense of stability; heresy was feared because it might tear apart church and
state – all of civilization; until 1150, civil authority tried and punished heretics
The Church and Heresy – starting in 1150, local bishops investigated heresy, then turned over
convicted heretics to civil authority for punishment
Justification for Force and Punishment – Peter of Aragon (1197): unhistorical interpretation
of some passages of OT; revival of Roman Law, in which heretics were to be punished by
death; the rise of Church power comparable to the state – heretics were a menace to social
order
The Papal Inquisition – begun around 1232 by Pope Gregory IX; purpose: to find out who
the heretics were and to persuade them to give up their heresy; run from Rome to be
centralized, uniform, and systematic; used mainly in southern France, northern Italy, and
northern Spain; stopped by end of 13th century
Trials for Heresy – trials before judge and jury were held for accused heretics, with at least
two witnesses needed (anonymous); if heretic confessed and repented, he/she would be
given penance (prayers, pilgrimage, fine, flogging); torture was authorized by Pope
Innocent IV in 1252; if heretic refused to repent, sever penalty was given (life in prison or
burning at the stake); these trials were more just than civil trials, which could see kings
condemn accused heretics to death with no evidence or trial; convicted heretics often
given a year or more before punishment to repent; executions were rare (only 5% of one
famous inquisitor known for severity)
Roman Inquisition – after centuries of disuse, Pope Paul III reconstituted the Spanish
Inquisition in 1542 in the wake of the Protestant Reformation; many of the Reformers
used similar processes to root out dissident (e.g., England)
The Spanish Inquisition
Ferdinand and Isabella – Catholic monarchs who united Spain by removing all opposition
A new kind of Inquisition – based on Papal Inquisition, but with different motives, tactics,
and effects; targeted Jews and Muslims who had converted to Christianity but were
suspected of false conversion; known for extreme cruelty; Pope Sixtus IV (of Sistine
Chapel) protested the severity and legitimacy of the Spanish Inquisition, but Ferdinand and
Isabella ignored him; most active between 1480 and 1530; not officially abolished until
1834
The other 1492 – expulsion of Jews from Spain by the Alhambra Decree
The Legacy of the Crusades and the Inquisition
Products of their time; reminders of the humanity and sinfulness of individuals within the
Church; good intentions taken too far – “zeal misguided” – how easily good intentions can
be turned into tragedy and mistakes; moral failures
Benefits to European society: opening of trade routes to the Far East; reintroduction to
philosophy, science, architecture, and mathematics that had been preserved by Muslim
scholars; new interest in ancient culture that led to the Renaissance
Pope John Paul II, Tertio Millennio Adveniente (1994): “Many factors frequently converged to
create assumptions which justified intolerance and fostered an emotional climate from
which only great spirits, truly free and filled with God, were in some way able to break
free. Yet the consideration of mitigating factors does not exonerate the Church from the
obligation to express profound regret for the weaknesses of so many of her sons and
daughters who sullied her face, preventing her from fully mirroring the image of her
crucified Lord, the supreme witness of patient love and of humble meekness. From these
painful moments of the past a lesson can be drawn for the future, leading all Christians to
adhere fully to the sublime principle stated by the Council: ‘The truth cannot impose itself
except by virtue of its own truth, as it wins over the mind with both gentleness and
power.’”
Pope John Paul II: “The Inquisition belongs to a tormented phase in the history of the
Church, which . . . Christians [should] examine in a spirit of sincerity and openmindedness.”
CHURCH HISTORY: FROM THE CRUSADES TO THE 21ST CENTURY
WEEK 12: THE REVOLUTIONARY 13TH CENTURY: ST. THOMAS AQUINAS,
ST. FRANCIS, AND ST. DOMINIC
SPEAKER’S NOTES
The Church and the World in the Year AD 1200
The High Middle Ages: 1050-1300 – all of Western Europe was Christian; Church and state
were intertwined; Christendom
Universities – centers of learning in major European cities: Paris (1200), Oxford (1200),
Salerno (1200), Cambridge (1209), Naples (1224), Padua (1222), Toulouse (1230); four
faculties: law, medicine, liberal arts, theology; independent from the Church, given charters
from kings and governed by their own faculty and students
Urban Growth – movement from farms to cities and towns necessitated a new way of
preaching the gospel and organizing the church (from monasteries and small country
churches)
Strong Papacy – centralization of church governance in the Roman Curia, formalization of
Canon Law, monopoly on Church doctrine and practice
Personal Piety – focus on: sacraments (baptism, confession, Eucharist); fasting; sanctoral
cycle; personal prayer (introduction of praying while kneeling with hands folded);
Christianity was not the religion of the people but a religion of the hierarchy
Common life –prosperous, fruitful; rebirth of creativity and growth: a good time to be alive
Pope Innocent III (1198-1216)
Vicar of Christ: “set midway between God and man, below God but above man,” given “not
only the universal church but the whole world to govern”
Areas of focus: Crusade, Reform, Heresy
Crusade – called the Fourth Crusade, which sacked Constantinople (against his will)
Reform – promoted honest business practices, established quadrennial ad limina visits;
authorized preaching of the Franciscans
Heresy – sent Dominic to preach to the Albigensians; heresy is high treason against God
Fourth Lateran Ecumenical Council (1215) – largest council up to that point in history with
1200 bishops and abbots representing all Christian communities in the world; defined
Eucharist in terms of transubstantiation; defined doctrine of the Trinity; urged reform of
clergy (condemned drunkenness among clergy, feasting, dancing, concubinage); ordered
bishops to scrutinize the fitness of candidates for ordination; condemned all heresies;
mandated yearly confession; mandated distinctive clothing for Jews and Muslims; called
for Fifth Crusade
Most powerful and influential pope of the Middle Ages; buried at St. John Lateran
The Mendicant Religious Orders
Contemporary climate: lax and materialistic clergy; migration from farms to cities; heretical
groups; need to preach and live the gospel outside monasteries
Mendicants: beggars for the Lord – new kind of religious order, subject directly to the pope
(rather than an abbot or bishop); itinerant preachers: live the monastic ideals of poverty,
chastity, and obedience while in the world (rather than withdrawn from the world) in order
to convert the world by preaching and example; no source of income like a monastery, so
relied on begging; lived and ministered in the cities, among those who had moved from
the rural areas; called friars (brothers), not monks
Four Mendicant Orders: Dominicans, Franciscans, Carmelites, Augustinians
St. Dominic de Guzman (1170-1221) – born in Castile (southern Spain); ordained a priest,
spending seven years devoted to prayer and penance; encountered the Albigensian heresy
and sent to preach to them by Pope Innocent III; founded the Friars Preachers in
Toulouse in 1215 as a community of learning, teaching, and prayer; order approved by the
Fourth Lateran Council, following the Rule of St. Augustine; order spread throughout
Europe, with a provinces in Spain, Provence, France, Lombardy, and Rome; first General
Chapter held in Bologna (home to the great university), where Dominic died and is buried
The Dominicans (Order of Preachers, OP) – great theologians and teachers (Ss. Thomas
Aquinas, Albert the Great); missionaries in Asia and the Americas; papal preachers
St. Francis of Assisi (c. 1181-1226) – son of wealthy Assisi cloth merchant in France (named
John, but called the Frenchman, Francisco, because his mother was French and he was born
in France); enjoyed spending his wealth as a youth; heard voice from crucifix in San
Damiano: “Go and repair my church which you see is falling down;” used his father’s
money to do the work, resulting in a quarrel with his father; renounced his inheritance and
possessions; lived in poverty, moving from town to town as a pilgrim, gathering seven
disciples around him; lived a communal life at the Portiuncula; distinguished from other
bands of preachers by their orthodox doctrine and obedience to the Pope; wrote a simple
rule in 1210, approved by Pope Innocent III; served as a deacon, never ordained a priest;
gave up leadership of the order as it grew and needed a stronger leader; in later life, erected
the first crèche, composed the Canticle of the Sun, and received the Stigmata; died at the
Portiuncula, buried in a basilica built in his honor in Assisi
The Franciscans (Order of Friars Minor, OFM; Order of Friars Minor Conventual, OFM
Conv; Women’s Order of St. Francis, OSF; Third Order Regular, TOR) – some scholars
(like St. Bonaventure), but ministered especially in towns and parishes, preaching and
serving the poor
St. Clare of Assisi (1193-1253) and the Poor Clares – born in Assisi; so moved by the
preaching of St. Francis that she joined him at the Portiuncula and took the habit of a nun;
started a community of women who wanted to live the ideals of St. Francis in extreme
poverty and austerity, called the Poor Clares; never left the convent of Assisi, considered
one of the great medieval mystics; patron of television
Scholastic Theology
Medieval Theology – based on careful reading of Scripture; compiled writings of the Church
fathers on Scripture and compared their thoughts, e.g. the Sentences of Peter Lombard (d.
1160); starting point: Scripture
Rediscovery of Aristotle – until 12th century, only a couple of his works were known in the
West; rediscovered by scholars like Abelard (d. 1142); between 1150 and 1250, all of
Aristotle’s works were translated into Latin (often from Arabic) and spread throughout
Europe through the universities; Aristotle’s works covered all areas of knowledge: botany,
zoology, astronomy, physics, logic, metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, political science,
etc.; sought to understand the world through reason; not religiously based
Scholastic Theology – done by the scholars in the universities, beginning in Paris; used the
thought pattern of Aristotle to explain the Christian faith; starting point: God’s gift of
human reason; example: St. Anselm, fides quarens intellectum, ontological argument for the
existence of God: that than which nothing greater can be conceived; three leaders in 13th
Century: St. Bonaventure, OFM (d. 1274); St. Albert the Great, OP (d. 1280), and St.
Thomas Aquinas, OP (d. 1274)
St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) – born near Aquino (between Rome and Naples); educated
by Benedictines at Monte Cassino; joined the newly-formed Dominicans against family
wishes, who locked him in a castle, where he studied the Bible; studied philosophy and
theology in Paris and Cologne; student of St. Albert the Great; taught at several
universities; wrote commentaries on Aristotle and numerous theological treatises; wrote
hymns and prayers, including texts for new feast of Corpus Christi (e.g., Tantum Ergo);
characteristics of his thinking: primary role of senses in acquiring knowledge;
understanding of matter and form, substance and accidents; interrelation between reason
and faith; we can know some truths about God by using reason; Dec. 6, 1272: revelation
after which he wrote no more, said that in comparison to what he had seen all his writing
were like so much straw; died (of overwork and fatigue) on the way to the Council of
Lyons in 1274
Summa Theologica (begun in 1266) – five-volume, unfinished study of all Christian mysteries
using Scripture and reason; considered most complete and thorough presentation of
Christian theology; major arguments: existence of God; just war; natural law; the beatific
vision; sacraments
Impact of the 13th Century Revolution
G.K. Chesterton: St. Francis and St. Thomas “in their own age were doing the same work; a
work that has changed the world.” – the work of reformation in the world (Francis) and in
the mind (Thomas), bringing Christianity back to Christendom; “they both reaffirmed the
Incarnation, by bringing God back to earth;” they both gave renewed example of what it
means to imitate Christ, freeing or liberating Christians from secular power or philosophy;
13th Century was a new movement; Thomas converted the non-believers to Christianity
while Francis converted the Christians to Christianity
Connection between theology and the world – Aquinas’ theology was in dialogue with
philosophy and science, not separated from it; correctly understands Christianity as the
belief that the divine has entered the world of the senses
Christianity of the People – mendicant friars took religion out of monasteries and to the poor;
a revolution in the way Christianity was understood and organized
A World in need of Conversion – offered through the mendicant orders’ emphasis on
poverty, simplicity, and trust in God
The end of Christendom and the beginning of lived Christianity
CHURCH HISTORY: FROM THE CRUSADES TO THE 21ST CENTURY
WEEK 13: THE TUMULTUOUS 14TH CENTURY: THE BLACK DEATH, THE AVIGNON
PAPACY, AND THE WESTERN SCHISM
SPEAKER’S NOTES
Europe and the Church in the 14th Century
Rise of Nationalism - France, England, Spain
Development of Banking – Tuscany, developed by cloth merchants and guilds, began
charging fees and interest, used money gained through commerce to lend to kings and
governments to finance wars
Advance in War Techniques – plate armor replaced chain mail; shipbuilding improved;
gunpowder invented, brass cannon casted in Florence by 1324
The Hundred Years War (1337-1453) – France vs. England, rule of Gascony in SW France
and claim of King of England to throne of France; Battle of Agincourt (1415),
outnumbered English defeat French; end result: increased national unity and identity
The Black Death – 1347-1350
Names for the Plague – The Great Mortality, the Great Pestilence, the Bubonic Plague, The
Black Death (Black = glum and terrible, also blackness on skin in late stages of disease)
Origin – traced to China in 1333, brought by trade ships to Sicily in 1346, reached France,
Germany, Spain, and England by 1348; eventually reached Scandinavia and Russia; spread
most likely by fleas carried by rats; outbreaks continued regularly through the 19th century
Boccaccio (d. 1375), The Decameron – description of The Black Death in Florence
Effects on population – one-third of total population of Europe died by plague in 14th
Century (European population: 1347, 75 million; 1352, 50 million); one third of Florence
died in six months (100,000), total dead: 45-75%; fifty percent died in Avignon, including
one third of the cardinals, Pope Clement VI consecrated the Rhone River as a burial place;
effected everyone, but more disproportionally the poor because of lack of hygeine
Effects on Economy – thriving commerce and trade disrupted, especially in cities;
construction projects stopped
Effects on the clergy – priests responded to Black Death in one of two ways: 1) fled, 2)
ministered to the sick, caught the disease, and died themselves; therefore, almost no clergy
left by end of the plague; new priests ordained without training and scrutiny, lowering
people’s respect for the Church
Effects on survivors – no explanation for death, no support from Church: some increased
personal devotion to God, some gave in to wickedness, many relied on superstition for
explanations, many found scapegoats in Jews and witches; became disillusioned with the
Church, which could provide no explanation and little help
The Avignon Papacy – 1309-1377
French Interference – King Philip the Fair of France taxed clergy in France to get money to
create strong French nation, Pope Boniface VIII resisted and threatened
excommunication, Philip’s men stormed the papal palace in Rome in the early-morning
darkness and arrested Boniface, who was rescued by the people of Rome, but died a
month later; newly elected pope lived only six months; Clement V elected
The Pope Moves to France – Clement V from France, still in France at time of his election,
Philip threatened to put Boniface on trial posthumously and blackmailed Clement to stay
in France, transferred papacy to Avignon in 1309, created many French cardinals; six
popes lived in Avignon, all French
Why Avignon? Why not Avignon? – Avignon was not controlled by French kings but by
Naples, had easy access to the sea, was more easily accessible from most of Western
Europe (cut down trip to see Pope by five weeks for 4/5 of population), was strongly
fortified, was close to Italy but away from wars among Italian cities, bureaucracy of the
curia could be anywhere (papal court was a place where business was done);
Why Rome? – Pope as successor of St. Peter as Bishop of Rome, Avignon chosen for
convenience and political reasons, not spiritual ones; Avignon papacy became known for
magnificence and opulence
St. Catherine of Siena (1347-1380)
Life in Siena – Born in Siena, youngest of 20+ children of a cloth dyer, led life of prayer and
penance against wishes of her parents, became Dominican Tertiary, mystic, stigmatist,
lived for a while with Eucharist as her only sustenance, never learned to write but dictated
over 300 letters
Influence in Avignon – began written correspondence with Pope Gregory XI in Avignon, he
often wrote her seeking spiritual advice and counsel; traveled to Avignon in 1376 as an
emissary of Florence to help bring peace in struggles between Florence and papacy;
Gregory had been wanting to move papacy back to Rome, but was hesitant and slow to
act; Catherine urged him to do so and was told in a vision of a vow Gregory had made to
return the papacy to Rome; Gregory made the decision and set sail for Rome on Sept. 13,
1376, with Catherine following by land; Gregory died of exhaustion in Rome in 1378
Death and burial in Rome – Catherine moved to Rome and gathered a group of followers; she
died there of a stroke in 1380 and was buried at Santa Maria sopra Minerva
The Great Western Schism – 1378-1417
The Pope Back in Rome – after Gregory died, people of Rome rioted during papal election,
calling for an Roman; elected (April 8, 1378) a non-Roman Italian, the archbishop of Bari,
who became Urban VI; he attempted to reform the curia, reprimanded worldly bishops
and cardinals in tirades of anger and rage, urged to resign from papacy because election
had been made under fear of mob violence
A Second Pope – group of French cardinals gathered and wrote a letter calling Urban VI an
anti-Christ, demon, apostate, and tyrant; called a conclave (Sept. 20, 1378) in which they
elected Clement VII, a French soldier-bishop, who ruled from Avignon
Schism – Two Rival Popes – nations and leaders took sides: for Urban in Rome (England,
Germany, most of Italy, Holy Roman Empire, Hungary, Poland); for Clement in Avignon
(France, Naples, Burgundy, Savoy, Scotland, Austria); rival popes excommunicated each
other, sent armies to fight each other, levied taxes to support armies; Urban asked
Catherine of Siena to come to Rome to be his ambassador to the Queen of Naples to urge
her to support him, but she stayed in Rome and died there; head later sent to Siena
A Third Pope – as popes died in Rome and Avignon, successors were elected, often on the
promise to resign after election to end the schism, but none followed through; Popes in
Rome: Urban VI, Boniface IX, Innocent VII, Gregory XII; anti-popes in Avignon:
Clement (VII), Benedict (XIII); Council in Pisa in 1409 deposed Gregory XII and
Benedict (XIII), electing anti-pope Alexander V, but neither Gregory nor Benedict
recognized the authority of the Council, resulting in three people claiming to be pope;
Alexander died soon after, and the Council at Pisa elected anti-pope John (XXIII), still
making three people claiming to be pope
Council of Constance – HRE Sigismund of Luxembourg saw need to unify Church and
Europe, convinced John (XXIII) to call Ecumenical Council of Constance in 1414 to end
the Great Western Schism, passed a decree asserting the superiority of an Ecumenical
Council over the authority of the pope; tried John and found him guilty of many crimes,
deposing him; tried Benedict (Avignon) in absentia and deposed him; Gregory XII
voluntarily resigned after officially convoking the Council to give it legitimacy
End of Schism – Council of Constance elected Pope Martin V on Nov. 11, 1417, ending
schism – weakened papacy, especially in the face of strong monarchs (e.g., inability of
pope to influence Ferdinand and Isabella on the cruelty of the Spanish Inquisition)
The Beginnings of Division
Effects of plague – loss of respect for clergy, fewer and uneducated clergy, decimated
infrastructure and economy
Effects of Avignon Papacy and Western Schism – extravagance, simony, absentee bishops,
degradation of papacy, demands of rival papal tax collectors, immorality of clergy, selling
of indulgences, effectively national churches
Beginning of calls for reform – John Wycliffe in England (d. 1384), John Hus in Bohemia
(burned at the stake in 1415)
Legacy of the 14th Century – evidence of what can happen when human desires for power and
pleasure take control; inability of Church to adequately address devastation of plague; need
for separation between Church and state; reminder that the Holy Spirit works in the
Church despite human weakness – St. Catherine of Siena as a light in the darkness;
constant need to purge what is sinful and restore the divine in Church; Wycliffe and Hus
were right: reform was needed, but the leaders of the Church moved too slowly
CHURCH HISTORY: FROM THE CRUSADES TO THE 21ST CENTURY
WEEK 14: GREAT SAINTS AND WRITERS – FROM ST. THERESA OF AVILA AND ST.
VINCENT DE PAUL TO CHAUCER AND DANTE
SPEAKER’S NOTES
Great Catholic Writers
Dante Alighieri (1265-1321)
Context: Rise of Florence; bridge between 13th (Revolutionary) and 14th (Tumultuous)
Centuries
Life – born and raised in Florence during time of great struggle between two opposing
factions: Guelphs (loyal to Pope) and Ghibellines (loyal to HRE); part of Guelph alliance;
enrolled in Apothecaries Guild; involved in political government of Florence; well
educated in philosophy, literature, and theology, especially Albert the Great and Thomas
Aquinas; fell in love with Beatrice, who served as his muse until her death in 1290; exiled
from Florence and sentenced to death because of he had supposedly abandoned the city;
lived in Verona, Lucca, Bologna, and Ravenna
The Divine Comedy – semi-autobiographical self journey through hell, purgatory, and heaven,
led by Virgil, Beatrice, and St. Bernard of Clairvaux; sometimes called the last book of the
Middle Ages and the first book of Italian literature
Religious Influence – The Divine Comedy is a portrait of the Church and theology in the 13th
century; condemns corruption of popes and bishops, lay investiture, simony, while
acknowledging divine origin of papacy and Church; glorifies wisdom, love, poverty; shows
belief in Assumption of Mary; presents scholastic theology of 13th century to the rest of
the world; influences popular Catholic thought on limbo and purgatory, as well as
subsequent art and literature (e.g., Michelangelo’s Last Judgment); Pope Benedict XV,
Encyclical in 1921: “while there is no lack of great Catholic poets who combine the useful
with the enjoyable, Dante has the singular merit that while he fascinates the reader with
wonderful variety of pictures, with marvellously lifelike colouring, with supreme
expression and thought, he draws him also to the love of Christian knowledge, and all
know how he said openly that he composed his poem to bring to all ‘vital nourishment.’”
Geoffrey Chaucer (1340-1400)
Context – The Tumultuous 14th Century – Hundred Year’s War, Black Death, Avignon
Papacy, immorality of clergy
Life – born in London, son of a vintner; page in a noble household; sent as a soldier to fight
against France in Hundred Year’s War, taken prisoner near Rheims, ransomed by the king;
well educated in ancient and contemporary literature, including Dante and Boccaccio, in
science, medicine, psychology, Church Fathers, Scripture, and languages; married Philippa,
a lady-in-waiting to the queen; became knight and member of parliament; buried in
Westminster Abbey
St. Thomas á Becket (1118-1170) and the Pilgrimage to Canterbury – context: lay investiture;
well-educated nobleman; studied at Paris and Bologna; ordained deacon; became
successful administrator as archdeacon of Canterbury and friend of future King Henry II;
chancellor of England when Henry II became king; strong supporter of king, even against
interests of the Church; Archbishop of Canterbury in 1162; took responsibilities as
Archbishop seriously, above allegiance and friendship of Henry; opposed king on taxation,
ability of secular courts to punish clerics, and freedom to appeal to Rome; Becket exiled to
France for six years; returned to England under supposed peace, but still at odds with
Henry; king mentioned off-hand to guards that he wished someone would rid him of this
troublesome priest; four barons went to Canterbury and killed Becket in the cathedral;
shrine became most popular pilgrimage site in Europe; shrine destroyed by Henry VIII
The Canterbury Tales – written on and off between 1386 and Chaucer’s death, never finished;
intended to include thirty pilgrims traveling to Becket’s shrine at Canterbury who would
tell four tales each: two on way to Canterbury, two on return trip; tales come from many
sources, from ancient writings to Far East stories to contemporary authors; few original
stories by Chaucer; prologue gives concise portrait of English people and culture of the
time, especially everyday people
Religious Influence – picture of wide variety within Church, good and bad; especially points
out what Chaucer identified as faults of people in the Church, e.g., worldliness and
immorality of clergy, selling of pardons (indulgences) and relics (see Monk in Prologue, p. 8);
but also complemented good clergy and spoke of what they should be like (see Parson in
Prologue, p. 16-17); vision of both reality of some within the Church at the time and what
the Church should be like – placed firmly in the 14th century
J.R.R. Tolkien (1892-1973)
Context – Two World Wars
Life – born in South Africa; after his father’s death when he was four years old, moved to
England and converted to Catholicism as a young boy along with his mother, aunt, and
brother; after his mother died when he was 12, raised by Oratorian priests; professor of
Anglo-Saxon at Oxford; friend of C.S. Lewis
The Lord of the Rings – published between 1954 and 1956; epic story of good and evil
Religious Influence – not religious allegory, like Lewis’ Chronicles of Narnia, but subtly
conveyed religious themes; mythology is a “divine echo of the truth;” “The Lord of the Rings
is of course a fundamentally religious and Catholic work; unconsciously so at first, but
consciously in the revision. That is why I have not put in, or have cut out, practically all
references to anything like 'religion', to cults or practices, in the imaginary world. For the
religious element is absorbed into the story and the symbolism.” A different way of giving
a Catholic interpretation to the world – a story of a journey toward the divine, the struggle
of regular people to do good in the face of evil:
And we shouldn’t be here at all, if we’d known more about it before we started. But I suppose it’s often that way. The brave
things in the old tales and songs, Mr. Frodo: adventures, as I used to call them. I used to think that they were things the
wonderful folk of the stories went out and looked for. . . . But that’s not the way of it with the tales that really mattered, or
the ones that stay in the mind. Folk seem to have been just landed in them, usually—their paths were laid that way. . . .
But I expect they had lots of chances, like us, of turning back, only they didn’t. And if they had . . . they’d have been
forgotten. We hear about those as just went on—and not all to a good end.” (TT IV:8, 711)
Great Saints
St. Isidore the Farmer (1080-1130) and St. Mary de la Cabeza (d. 1175) – context: Middle
Ages; peasant farmers in Spain (near Madrid); married laypeople; had one son, who died at
a young age; rose early each day to go to church, prayed while plowing fields, took holidays
to go on pilgrimages to local shrines; legend of their employer seeing a second team of
oxen next to Isidore guided by an angel; holy, humble married couple; Isidore canonized at
same ceremony as Sts. Francis Xavier, Ignatius Loyola, and Theresa of Avila
St. Elizabeth of Hungary (1207-1231) – context: Crusades; married to King Louis IV of
Hungary; happily married, bore three children; generous – founded hospitals and
orphanages; Louis went on crusade in 1227 then died of plague; in grief, refused to marry
again; driven from court; became Franciscan tertiary, built and worked in a hospital for the
poor; provided for the education of her children; died at age 24
St. Bridget of Sweden (1303-1373) – context: Avignon Papacy; daughter of a wealthy
governor in Sweden; married Ulf Gudmarrson at age 14; eight children, including St.
Catherine of Sweden; became lady-in-waiting to queen of Sweden; had mystic visions of
the Passion of Christ; went on pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela with her husband,
who soon after died; she lived in mourning at a Cistercian abbey; founded a monastery for
both monks and nuns in separate enclosures but with a common church; went to Rome
for approval of her order, the Brigettines, then spent the rest of her life on pilgrimages in
Italy and to the Holy Land; tried to convince Avignon popes to return to Rome
St. Rita of Cascia (1377-1447) – context: Renaissance; born at Roccoporena in Umbria, Italy;
wanted to become a nun but married according to her parents’ wishes; two sons; husband
was violent and unfaithful and eventually murdered over a dispute; Rita became an
Augustinian nun at Cascia; mystic and visionary of the Passion of Christ, receiving a
wound on her forehead as if from crown of thorns; patron of desperate cases and troubled
marriages
St. Philip Neri (1515-1595) – context: Protestant Reformation; son of a Florentine notary,
began a financial career in Naples; experienced a conversion and went to Rome; lived,
homeless and poor, in attics and churches; ministered among Florentine workers,
encouraging them to abandon evil practices and visit churches with him; joyful, infectious
personality, drawing many followers; ordained a priest in 1551; founded Congregation of
the Oratory (Oratorians) with no vows or promise of obedience, worked among pilgrims
and poor in Rome; known as a confessor and spiritual director who could read hearts;
given an old church by the pope, which he tore down to build a new church, Chiesa
Nuova; “Cheerfulness strengthens the heart and makes us persevere in a good life.
Therefore the servant of God ought always to be in good spirits;” order used music and
art to present the gospel, giving name to the oratorio musical form (Messiah); most famous
Oratorian: Blessed John Henry Newman
St. Teresa of Avila (1515-1582) – context: Spanish Inquisition; born of wealthy family in
Avila, Spain; normal, worldly adolescent life; entered Carmelite convent, which was large
and relaxed (enclosure not enforced, ladies and gentlemen from town frequented the
convent, little attempt at solitude or poverty); developed practice of mental prayer; after 25
years in the convent founded a new house where the Carmelite rule would be strictly
observed – Discalced Carmelites; led to founding of sixteen other convents, all marked by
poverty, manual work, abstinence from meat, prayer; insisted on intelligence and good
judgment in candidates (“God preserve us from stupid nuns!”) because intelligence needed
to persevere in this life; commanded by spiritual directors to write books, including an
autobiography and The Interior Castle on prayer and contemplation; first woman named
Doctor of the Church (in 1970)
St. John of the Cross (1542-1591) – context; Spanish Inquisition; born into poverty in Toledo,
Spain; studied theology at a Jesuit college; persuaded by Theresa of Avila to join the
Discalced Reform of the Carmelite Order; founded the Discalced Friars; imprisoned by
Calced Carmelites who rejected the reform, escaping after nine months; exiled by other
leaders in the Discalced order; victim of jealousy and power politics; mystic and poet,
including The Dark Night of the Soul; Doctor of the Church (1926)
St. Francis de Sales (1567-1622) – context: Calvinism; born in Savoy (between France,
Switzerland, and Italy); educated in Paris and Padua; doctor of law; offered career in law
and politics but refused because he wanted to be a priest; ministered among Calvinists by
preaching the simplicity of the gospel with gentleness and patience; bishop of Geneva;
writer – Introduction to the Devout Life, for laypersons; known for pleasantness and gentleness
– more flies are attracted by a spoonful of honey than a barrel of vinegar; influential in
revival of French Catholicism against Calvinism; Doctor of the Church (1877)
St. Martin de Porres (1579-1639) – context: American colonization; illegitimate son of Spanish
noble and free black woman of Lima, Peru; lay Dominican brother; apprenticed as a
barber-surgeon; worked among sick and dying, irrespective of race; canonized in 1962;
patron of race relations
St. Vincent de Paul (1581-1660) – context: French aristocracy; born in peasant family in
southern France; ordained priest at age 19; taken captive by Turkish pirates and sold to
slavery; court chaplain and tutor; combined ministry with wealthy and influential with love
of poor and oppressed (e.g., improved conditions of those imprisoned by the wealthy
family to whom he was chaplain); founded community of priests to serve in small towns
and villages; with St. Louise de Marillac, founded Daughters of Charity as a non-enclosed
order to minister to the poor; esteemed by all for his work to poor, outcasts, and convicts;
namesake of lay organization founded by Frederic Ozanam in 1833; friend of St. Francis
de Sales
St. John Baptist de la Salle (1651-1719) – context: French aristocracy; born Reims, France;
well-educated; ordained priest; opened free schools for poor boys in society where only
wealthy were educated; founded Brothers of the Christian Schools, with only lay brothers
– no priests; introduced teaching in vernacular, age-divided classes, reform schools for
troubled youth, formal teacher training programs, championed idea of education for all;
patron of teachers
St. Alphonsus Ligouri (1696-1787) – context: Enlightenment; lawyer in Naples with doctorate
at age 16 and own practice at age 21; studied theology privately and became a priest;
founded Congregation of the Holy Redeemer (Redemptorists) for priests to preach to
rural poor; wrote on morality, considered Father of Moral Theology; reformed clergy
(when being visited by worldly priest put crucifix on floor at door, when priest hesitated to
enter, Alphonsus said: “Come along and be sure to trample it underfoot. It would not be
the first time you have placed Our Lord beneath your feet;” Doctor of the Church (1871)
St. Therese of Lixieux (1873-1897) – context: French Imperialism; youngest daughter of
Blessed Louis and Zelie Martin; joined her sisters at Carmelite convent in Lisieux; led
simple life; wrote Story of a Soul; died at age 24 of tuberculosis; always wanted to be a
missionary; declared patron of missions; canonized in 1925; Doctor of the Church (1997)
CHURCH HISTORY: FROM THE CRUSADES TO THE 21ST CENTURY
WEEK 15: THE CHURCH, ART, AND SCIENCE: MICHELANGELO AND GALILEO
SPEAKER’S NOTES
Prologue – tombs of Galileo and Michelangelo at Santa Croce
Michelangelo Buonarroti – 1475-1564
The context –Florence: on-and-off Medici rule, battles among Italian city-states, Renaissance,
Savonarola (preacher against moral laxity, creator of “Bonfire of the Vanities,” burned for
proclaiming himself an oracle of the Holy Spirit), Humanism (exalted beauty of natural
world and inherent worth of human beings as created in image of God as ways of
worshipping God; art: ideals of physical perfection and beauty); Protestant Reformation
His life – born in country town of Caprese to a minor government official; apprenticed to a
stonecutter at age six; showed promise as an artist, apprenticed to painter Domenico
Ghirlandaio at age thirteen; invited to attend humanist academy and live in palace of
Lorenzo de Medici; left Florence when the Medici were expelled, living in Venice and
Bologna (where he completed carvings on the tomb of St. Dominic); went to Rome for
first time in 1496; personality: unpleasant to look at (ugly?); known as a solitary and
melancholy person; known for having a temper (terribilitá), always lived poor, despite major
works
His works
Pietá – 1500 – St. Peter’s Basilica, Rome – commissioned by French Cardinal ambassador
to Rome for his tomb at St. Peter’s, must be “the most beautiful work of marble in
Rome, one that no living artist could do better”
David – 1504 – Galleria dell’Accademia, Florence – commissioned by the city of Florence
for high on the façade of the Duomo
Sistine Chapel Ceiling – 1508-1512 – Sistine Chapel, Rome – commissioned by Pope Julius
II (known as Il Teribile) for chapel built by his uncle, Pope Sixtus IV; Sistine Chapel:
same dimensions as Temple of Solomon, fortress-like, personal chapel of pope; original
commission: twelve apostles; Michelangelo given free rein in design, even though he
didn’t consider himself a painter; 300+ figures; new, humanist portrayal of Scripture,
with God moving – not static
Moses – 1515 – St. Peter in Chains, Rome (for tomb of Pope Julius II)
Medici Tombs – 1520-1534 – Church of San Lorenzo, Florence
The Last Judgment – 1534-1541 – Sistine Chapel, Rome; commissioned by Pope Paul III;
portrays all as equals, not clothed according to their status, as in traditional depictions;
artistic rendering of Dante’s Divine Comedy; met with strongly mixed responses,
especially over nudity; subject chosen in light of Reformation; Pope Paul III’s two
answers to the Reformation: Council of Trent and Michelangelo
St. Peter’s Basilica and Dome – 1546-1564 – Rome; rebuilding had been commissioned by
Julius II, continued by subsequent popes; original designs by Antonio da Sangallo the
Younger and Bramante; when Sangallo died, Pope Paul III gave commission to
Michelangelo, who argued he was not an architect; agreed out of obedience and to
build the greatest church in Christendom for the glory of God; particular contribution:
design of the dome; Michelangelo’s work spanned five pontificates; only drum of dome
completed when he died; dome built to his specifications, but church changed from
Greek cross to Latin cross
His death and burial – died in Rome, body laid out in Sancti Apostoli, then taken to Florence;
found incorrupt when casket opened in Florence; buried at Santa Croce, his boyhood
parish church; tomb has three allegorical figures: painting, sculpture, and architecture
His faith – called by contemporaries “the divine Michelangelo;” near end of life wrote to a
friend that he was “a poor man and of little value, a man who goes along laboring in that
art which God has given me for as long as I possibly can;” deeply pious man; struggled
with tension between beauty and faith, humanism and moralism: allegiance to both; most
religious of Renaissance artists
The tension: art and faith – what is the purpose of art in a religious context? Council of Trent
under Pope Paul IV (who had suggested that the Last Judgment be painted over): Pope
wanted nudity covered, Michelangelo said he should work on fixing the world rather than
art, Council issued decrees on religious art: Catholic Churches should use art not for its
own sake but for instruction of the faithful, must be clear, simple, and intelligible, with no
subtleties, and following proper decorum, specified painting over nudity in Last Judgment –
published one week before Michelangelo’s death; most loincloths removed in restorations
of 1990s under Pope John Paul II; Michelangelo would probably agree with Trent on
purpose of religious art in general as religious inspiration and instruction, but would
disagree on what the content of such instruction should be and perhaps the Last Judgment
was too theologically advanced for ordinary people; Pope John Paul II’s homily after
restoration (1994):
“The frescoes that we contemplate here introduce us to the world of Revelation. The truths
of our faith speak to us here from all sides... The Sistine Chapel is precisely – if one may say
so – the sanctuary of the theology of the human body. In witnessing to the beauty of man
created by God as male and female, it also expresses in a certain way the hope of a world
transfigured, the world inaugurated by the risen Christ, and even before by Christ on Mount
Tabor…in the context of the light that comes from God, the human body also keeps its
splendour and its dignity. .. If it is removed from this dimension, it becomes in some way an
object, which depreciates very easily, since only before the eyes of God can the human body
remain naked and unclothed, and keep its splendour and its beauty intact...”
Poem 285 - 1554
The voyage of my life at last has reached,
across a stormy sea, in a fragile boat,
the common port all must pass through, to give
an accounting for every evil and pious deed.
So now I recognize how laden with error
was the affectionate fantasy
that made art an idol and sovereign to me,
like all things men want in spite of their best interests.
What will become of all my thoughts of love,
once gay and foolish, now that I'm nearing two deaths?
I'm certain of one, and the other looms over me.
Neither painting nor sculpture will be able any longer
to calm my soul, now turned toward that divine love
that opened his arms on the cross to take us in.
Galileo Galilei – 1564-1642
The context – Church recovering from Protestant Reformation, need to be defensive on its
doctrine and beliefs; Thirty Years War (religious war, Catholic vs. Protestant; plague in
Italy in 1630 (same plague that led to Passion Play in Oberammergau)
His life – born in Pisa on Feb. 15, 1564 (same year as birth of Shakespeare, same month as
death of Michelangelo), son of a court musician at Florence; educated at a monastery,
joining the order as a novice until his father removed him to treat an eye infection and
didn’t let him return (listed as a defrocked priest in monastery records); enrolled in medical
school at U. of Pisa; sat in on lecture in mathematics and studied Euclid while ignoring his
medical classes; left Pisa without a degree, but later became professor of mathematics
there, then at Padua; built telescope in 1604 (not first, but best at the time), discovering
four moons of Jupiter in 1610, beginning of scientific proofs for heliocentrism
The faith – the earth is the center of the universe; 1615 Papal commission: the idea that the
sun lies at the center of the universe is “foolish and absurd … and formally heretical” and
that the idea that the Earth moves through space is “at the very least erroneous in faith.”
Scriptural citations:
Joshua 10.12-13: On this day, when the LORD delivered up the Amorites to the Israelites,
Joshua prayed to the LORD, and said in the presence of Israel: Stand still, O sun, at
Gibeon, O moon, in the valley of Aijalon! And the sun stood still, and the moon
stayed, while the nation took vengeance on its foes. Is this not recorded in the Book of
Jashar? The sun halted in the middle of the sky; not for a whole day did it resume its
swift course.
1 Chronicles 16.30: Tremble before him, all the earth; he has made the world firm, not to
be moved.
Psalms. 93.1: The LORD is king, robed with majesty; the LORD is robed, girded with
might. The world will surely stand in place, never to be moved.
Psalms 104.5: You fixed the earth on its foundation, never to be moved.
Ecclesiastes 1.5: The sun rises and the sun goes down; then it presses on to the place
where it rises.
The science – Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543): Polish canon (administrative church
position), used mathematical formulas and observation to replace Ptolemaic geocentric
system with a heliocentric system, replacing the earth with the sun as the center of the
universe; letter from Galileo to Grand Duchess Christina: “I hold that the sun is located at
the centre of revolving heavenly orbs and does not change place. And that the Earth
rotates itself and moves around the sun.”
The debate –
1611: Galileo goes to Rome as a scientific ambassador from Tuscany; took his telescope to
audience with Pope and St. Robert Bellarmine; a scientific commission was appointed
to examine Galileo’s conclusions; agreed that: 1) Milky Way is made up of many stars,
2) Saturn has a strange oval shape with lumps on either side, 3) Venus has phases, 4)
the Moon’s surface is irregular, and 5) Jupiter has four moons; did not comment on
implications of these discoveries
1616: Galileo went to Rome to defend his writings; supported to Pope Paul V by St.
Robert Bellarmine and Cardinal Maffeo Barberini; Church officials supported the
possibility of heliocentrism, but there was as yet no proof; Bellarmine: if science proves
that sun is center of the universe, then traditional interpretations of Scripture will be
seen as wrong interpretations and the appropriate verses read in a new way compatible
with science; Inquisition tried to issue warning that no Catholic could “hold, defend, or
teach” Copernican ideas; compromise of Pope: Galileo could discuss heliocentrism as a
hypothesis until there was convincing proof; allowed to teach heliocentrism but not
defend it
1624: Barberini had become Pope Urban VIII; Galileo returned to Rome to convince the
Pope that he had the necessary definitive proof; Urban told Galileo he could continue
to write about heliocentrism but could only call it a truth if he provided the proof
1632: Galileo publishes Dialogue on the Two Chief World Systems in which he gives a proof for
heliocentrism based on the motion of the tides; scientifically, this proof did not make
sense and was not substantiated; book was given an imprimatur by a Dominican priest
The trial – 1633: Galileo called to Rome to answer charges of disobeying a papal injunction
and promoting teachings contrary to Scripture (no charges of heresy); Galileo admitted he
had gone to far in the argument and promised not to do it again, as a sort of plea bargain;
at the last minute, the Inquisition overruled the plea bargain and found Galileo guilty of a
“vehement suspicion of heresy” and forced to publically recant belief in heliocentrism,
which he did in June 1633: “I abjure, curse, and detest my errors;” he was 69 years old and
in poor health form chronic arthritis
The punishment – Galileo put under house arrest at villa outside Florence and told never to
write again on physics; not strictly enforced (Galileo visited friends throughout Tuscany
and wrote Discourse on Two New Sciences); died at home in 1642
The reasons – Not a scientific debate but a theological one; scientists and Church disagreed
on the interpretation of data, what it meant that the earth revolved around the sun; Galileo
thought that science needed to replace theology as the Church’s main way of
understanding the world and that he had the knowledge and ability to guide the Church in
this transformation; that the world and the place of human beings in the universe can be
understood exclusively by science, without the need for theology
The pardon – Pope John Paul II set up commission in 1981 in Pontifical Academy of
Sciences to research Galileo trial; JPII: Inquisition acted in error; full report released in
1992 – different branches of knowledge call for different methods, each of which brings
out different aspects of reality; faith can never conflict with reason; science and theology
must stand together: “There exist two realms of knowledge, one which has its source in Revelation and
one which reason can discover by its own power. To the latter belong especially the experimental sciences and
philosophy. The distinction between the two realms of knowledge ought not to be understood as opposition.
The two realms are not altogether foreign to each other, they have points of contact. The methodologies
proper to each make it possible to bring out different aspects of reality.” (Report of Galileo Commission)
Cardinal Cesare Baronius: “The purpose of Scripture is not to tell us how the heavens go,
but how to go to heaven.”
His death and burial – while under house arrest, visited by Thomas Hobbes (life is nothing
but motion and matter; mathematics explains all; no free will), John Milton, and others;
died at his villa in 1642; buried temporarily in a chapel outside Santa Croce in Florence;
family and friends wanted to move his body and erect a tomb in the nave opposite
Michelangelo, but Urban VIII cautioned that this would be inappropriate; appealed to
Rome; permission given in 1734 to bury Galileo in the church; tomb designed similar to
Michelangelo’s, but with two allegorical figures (astronomy and mathematics), without
original plan for a third allegorical figure of philosophy
CHURCH HISTORY: FROM THE CRUSADES TO THE 21ST CENTURY
WEEK 16: REFORMATION AND RESPONSE:
FROM LUTHER AND HENRY VIII TO THE COUNCIL OF TRENT
SPEAKER’S NOTES
Prologue – the world on the eve of the Protestant Reformation
Center of power in Europe had shifted north to France and Germany
End of Latin as dominant language; acceptance and development of vernaculars
Exploration of the New World
Fall of Constantinople (1453) and end of Byzantine Empire
Printing Press (1439) by Johannes Gutenberg and Gutenberg Bible (1455)
The Church in need of Reform
The Papacy – Great Schism, Renaissance popes more focused on material and political gain
than spiritual leadership
The Roman Curia
Simony – estimated 2000 marketable church jobs in 1521
Pluralism – holding multiple bishoprics to maintain high level of income
Absenteeism – bishops not in their dioceses; only 7% resident pastors in Germany
Nobility in church offices – younger sons made bishops (five princes made bishops of
Geneva between 1450 and 1520, two at 8 yrs. Old
The Clergy and Religious Orders
Worldliness
Mass Priests – only duty is to say Mass, not tend to needs of faithful, no preaching
Lack of training – no seminaries
Non-resident monks – no community life, no prayer in community
Sale of Indulgences – remission of temporal punishment for sin; indulgences had arisen
beginning around 1343, given in exchange for a good work, often a donation of money;
official doctrine said interior repentance must accompany good work; eventually became
doctrine that indulgences could be applied to souls in purgatory, “insofar as God hears the
prayers of the Church;” became seen as easy way to gain or “buy” salvation
Attempts at Reform
Councils at Constance and Basel – failure to reach consensus, no authority
Pius II – bull Pastor Aeternus, called for accountability in papacy and Curia; died before it
could be published
Fifth Lateran Ecumenical Council (1512-1517) – called for training for clergy, revision of
Canon Law, convoking councils every five years; never implemented by the Pope
Religious Orders – Franciscans (St. Bernardine of Siena), Augustinians worked for reform
from the bottom up; Carthusians pressed for reform in area around Cologne
Laity – e.g., Oratory of Divine Love (1500, Genoa), lay society that worked to achieve
personal sanctity by good works
Secular Leaders – e.g., King of Spain, established seminary
None of these reforms worked because they were not embraced by the Pope
Central issue: Authority
The Reformers
Martin Luther (1483-1546) – Augustinian monk, professor of biblical interpretation at
Wittenberg; posted 95 Theses (in Latin) sent to bishop and supposedly posted on Castle
Door in Wittenberg on October 31, 1517: sin, indulgences, authority of the Pope; did not
question idea of indulgences but practice of selling them; specific indulgence: preached by
Johann Tetzel (Dominican), supposedly for building of St. Peter’s, but actually split
between banking firm, Roman Curia, and 23-yr-old Archbishop Albert of Mainz to pay tax
for dispensation to hold three dioceses; no intention of breaking from Pope but simply of
reforming the Church, assured Pope of his loyalty; called by Curia to Rome to answer
charge of heresy; excommunicated in 1521; Diet of Worms (April 18, 1521): refused to
recant because “his conscience was held captive to the Word of God;” from 95 Theses: (p.
80) 27, 36, 41, 42, 43, 45, 53
fundamental tenets:
Sola Scriptura – authority comes from Scripture alone
Sola Gratia – justification by grace alone, not works
Sacraments – two (baptism, eucharist) or three (penance) from Scripture
Real Presence of Jesus in Eucharist – consubstantiation, not transubstantiation
Priesthood of all believers – all can communicate with God and build up church
Authority of Church and Pope is manmade – thus does not need to be followed
Married clergy – celibacy not scriptural
Simplified liturgy with sermon as central feature – vernacular, hymns, wine
Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531) – parish priest in Glarus and Einsiedeln, Switzerland, then Zurich;
began to preach exclusively from Scripture in 1519; made a public protest in 1522 by
eating sausage in Lent along with followers because Lenten fast was not in the Bible; met
Luther in 1529, disagreeing on Eucharist (Luther: real presence; Zwingli: symbol);
followers joined with Calvin to lead toward Reformed Protestantism
John Calvin (1509-1564) – French born; pastor and theologian in Geneva; wrote Institutes of the
Christian Religion in 1536 (in Latin), systematic statement of Protestant theology; with
Luther: supreme authority of Scripture; against Luther: rejected Catholic Mass and real
presence in the Eucharist, advocated simple worship; predestination: God has knowledge
of all events and has marked certain people for heaven and others for hell; organized and
implemented reforms (including those of Zwingli); established theocracy (state church) in
Geneva with strict moral code; anyone found guilty of violating moral code (e.g., drinking,
playing card, dancing in public, disobeying parents), could be executed; complete
intolerance of other religious traditions, including other Christians; became most dominant
form of Protestantism in Europe
King Henry VIII (1509-1547) – given title “Defender of the Faith” in 1521 for document on
the sacraments and the real presence of Jesus in the Eucharist and condemning Luther;
when Pope refused to grant annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon, declared
self as supreme head of the Church in England; 1534 Act of Supremacy: church and civil
leaders required to take oath (St. Thomas More refused); dissolution of monasteries (15351540) maintained much Catholic theology except for authority of the Pope; Henry did not
consider himself a Protestant
The Catholic Reform
The Council of Trent (1545-1563) – called by Pope Paul III with two purposes: 1) bring
Protestants and Catholics back together, and 2) lay forth main teachings of Catholicism;
invited Lutherans to attend, but they declined, so only second purpose was completed
Religious Orders – Jesuits (1534), Capuchins (1528)
Catholic Teachings Reaffirmed at Trent:
Christian faith based on Scripture and Tradition
The Church guides interpretation of the Bible
Canon of Scripture defined
Salvation comes through faith signified by good works inspired by faith (p. 356, c. 1, 3)
All seven sacraments are valid
Christ is really present in the Eucharist (p. 360, c. 1, 7)
The Mass is a sacrifice, not simply a memorial meal
Disciplines issued at Trent:
Bishops must reside in their dioceses
Celibacy for priests upheld
Bishops ordered to end abuses of indulgences
Seminaries to be established in every diocese
Clergy must preach on all Sundays and Holy Days
New books to be issued: Catechism, Missal, Breviary, Index
The Mass of the Council of Trent (Tridentine Mass) – Missale Romanum issued in 1570 (Missal
of Pius V), universalized celebration of Mass, binding on all Catholic churches until 1960s,
for uniformity emphasized rubrical exactness, developed defensively and protectively,
required sermon
The People of the Catholic Reform
Pope St. Pius V (1504-1572) – born of a poor family; shepherd; entered Dominicans at
age 14; pope in 1566; put into effect the decrees of the Council of Trent; established
Congregation of the Index and relied on the Inquisition to keep heresy out of Italy;
established Our Lady of the Rosary on Oct. 7 after naval victory over Turks at
Lepanto
St. Charles Borromeo (1538-1584) – Bishop of Milan from 1563-1584; first resident
bishop in Milan in 80 years; led implementation of reforms of Trent, imitated in other
dioceses; helped draft Catechism and Missal of Trent; founded seminaries; established
Sunday school for children (Confraternity of Christian Doctrine)
St. Ignatius Loyola – next week!
Success of the Catholic Reform – better understanding of beliefs, uniformity of worship,
bishops and priests educated and held to high moral standards, strengthening of religious
orders, missionary zeal of new religious orders, spirituality of mercy and charity (e.g., St.
Vincent de Paul), papacy regenerated, many areas returned to Catholicism (esp. Poland,
large parts of Germany and France) – irony that the papal authority that was at the heart of
Protestant reforms was what most strengthened and held together the Catholic Church;
the reformed Catholic Church was once again able to meet the spiritual, intellectual, and
personal needs of humanity
Epilogue – Ecumenical Dialogue and the Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification
(para. 15 and 41)
CHURCH HISTORY: FROM THE CRUSADES TO THE 21ST CENTURY
WEEK 17: THE JESUITS AND MISSIONARY ZEAL – FROM JAPAN TO THE AMERICAS
SPEAKER’S NOTES
Prologue: the Protestant Reformation and Catholic Response – reform and education of
clergy and religious orders, importance of preaching (required on Sundays), deepened
focus on and reverence for Eucharist, new ways of teaching and presenting the faith
(catechisms, missals), emphasis on importance of works of charity
For the first time since 313, Christianity moves beyond Europe and Mediterranean
St. Ignatius of Loyola and the Jesuits
St. Ignatius of Loyola (1491-1556) – Spanish nobleman, soldier, wounded in battle in 1521,
read lives of saints and Christ, leading to conversion, pilgrim to Jerusalem, studied for
priesthood upon return to Spain, arrested by Inquisition because his charisma and
mysticism reminded them of a condemned heretical sect (alumbrados), gathered small
group of followers, led them on a rigorous program of meditation and self-examination,
group ordained priests in Rome in 1537 (Ignatius waited a year to say his first Mass
because he wanted to say it in the Holy Land, but eventually at Chapel of the Manger in St.
Mary Major), given mission by Pope Paul III to support the Church and Pope in Rome
and imitate the apostles in preaching the faith
The First Jesuits – took vows at St. Paul Outside-the-Walls in Rome on April 22, 1541;
Ignatius elected first Superior General; grew from 10 members in 1540 to almost 1,000 at
Ignatius’ death in 1566
The Revolutionary Jesuit Approach
A new kind of religious order – no prayer in common, extensive training (up to 15 years),
strong central control from Rome
Loyalty to the Pope - vow of obedience to the Pope (only religious order with this vow)
Preaching – in response to Protestant Reformation
Retreats – the Spiritual Exercises
Church architecture – the Gésu in Rome; finished in 1584; Catholic reform emphasized
preaching, reception of Eucharist, devotions: new architecture of large open nave for
crowds of people, centrality of pulpit, flat or wooden ceiling with good acoustics, large
sanctuary for communion, elaborate altarpieces to draw attention to altar and
tabernacle, high domes and windows to draw the eye toward heaven; became model for
Baroque churches throughout Europe
Education – first SJs joined faculties of existing universities, then opened schools and
seminaries where they traveled; saw Catholic education as a way to ensure loyalty to the
Church; Jesuit seminaries helped build educated clergy; 800 universities worldwide by
1773; most prestigious universities in the world, educating people like Cardinal
Richelieu and René Descartes; today 3,700 Jesuit schools worldwide (USA: 71
secondary schools, 28 colleges)
Suppression – 1773 by Pope Clement XIV (OFM Conv) citing: difficulties with other
religious orders and secular rulers, inability to fulfill the objectives for which they were
founded, need to restore peace in the Church; result of Jesuits being too involved in
political and economic power struggles in Europe; restored by Pope Pius VII (OSB) in
1814
Jesuit Saints
St. Aloysius Gonzaga (1568-1591) – son of Italian noble, signed away his inheritance to join
Jesuits at age 18, caught plague while working among victims in Rome; student of St.
Robert Bellarmine and St. Charles Borromeo
Sr. Robert Bellarmine (1542-1621) – Doctor of the Church; scholar, teacher and writer;
Cardinal and advisor to popes
St. Edmund Campion (1540-1581) and the Forty Martyrs of England and Wales – member of
prominent Anglican family, offered church position by Queen Elizabeth I, refused and
fled to continent, becoming Catholic and joining Jesuits, returned to England as a
missionary, hanged, drawn, and quartered for being a Catholic and encouraging others to
return to Catholicism
St. Peter Canisius (1521-1597) – most important Jesuit scholar, Doctor of the Church, friend
of Sts. Charles Borromeo and Francis de Sales; wrote catechisms, helped return parts of
Germany and Switzerland to Catholicism
St. Peter Claver (1581-1654) – ministered among slaves in Colombia, converting 300,000,
worked for humane treatment on plantations
No Jesuit saints since 17th Century (St. Peter Claver and NA Martyrs)
Missionaries to the Far East
St. Francis Xavier and India – one of first Jesuits, sailed from Portugal in 1540, reached Goa,
India, thirteen months later, first Jesuit missionary; learned native languages and gathered
people to recite Ten Commandments, Lord’s Prayer, and Hail Mary in native language;
died while waiting for permission to enter China
Japan – St. Francis Xavier arrived in 1549, permanent Jesuit mission established in Kyoto in
1559, met with both success (150,000 Christians by 1582) and persecutions; Japanese
became concerned that European traders would bring people to conquer and take over
control of the country, so in 1614 Japan’s shogun banned foreign religion and banished
foreign missionaries, some of whom went underground; 2,000 Japanese and 62 foreign
missionaries martyred; Christianity stayed alive underground until Japan reopened to
foreign trade in 1853; French missionaries arrived in Nagasaki 1865 and a group of people
showed up at the church declaring that they were Christians; faith had been passed on for
250 years with no priests, elders baptizing and leading prayers on Sundays; about 10,000
Christians in area of Nagasaki had remained Christian
Matteo Ricci (1552-1610) and China – led SJs to China in 1581, known for skills in science
and technology (maps, clocks), adjusted gospel message to suit Chinese ideas, dressed and
acted as a Buddhist monk with shaved head to gain respect, became trained as a Confucian
scholar, advocated “sweet conversion,” accepted traditional Chinese rituals among newly
converted Christians, including Chinese language for Mass, known as “western
Confucians,” presented Christianity as a moral system – controversial among missionaries
and deemed error by Pope Clement XI (1704), banning Mass in Chinese and insisting on
adopting Western customs along with Christian faith; Chinese emperor outlawed
Christianity and expelled missionaries
The Philippines – part of Spanish empire, first diocese established in 1581; Franciscan,
Dominican, and Jesuit missionaries arrived in 1500s; Franciscans convinces Spanish rulers
to prohibit slavery in 1574; brought Spanish religious practices and feasts; today 80%
Catholic
Missionaries to the Americas
Christopher Columbus – Columbus sailed on order of Catholic monarchs of Spain and
claimed the land for God and Spain, saw lands as expansion of Christendom, had chapel
on board ship, named landing spot San Salvador; first gold given to Queen Isabella who
gave it to the Pope for St. Mary Major
Encounter with Native Americans – initially thought they were in Asia; some explorers
thought they were the Lost Tribes of Israel, others heathens or pagans, others not human
at all; Columbus: people with souls who “do not hold any creed nor are they idolaters; but
they all believe that power and good are in the heavens; … [people of] a very acute
intelligence;” Columbus heard stories of cannibalism and thought that they could serve the
Christians; generally thought as inferior to Europeans; conquered militarily by Europeans,
killing 10% of natives in first 100 years; Spanish conquerors were generally poor,
uneducated, and ambitious: goal of conquerors: win land and gain slaves; many saw Native
Americans as sub-human
Christian Missionaries – first missionaries were Franciscans, began in 1500 on Santo
Domingo; joined by Dominicans and Augustinians; Jesuits arrived in 1549
American Dioceses – First Three Dioceses in Dominican Republic established in 1506,
restructured in 1511 to Dioceses of Santo Domingo, Puerto Rico, and Concepcion;
dioceses added in Panama (1513), Cuba and Mexico (1518), Venezuela (1533), Colombia,
Nicaragua, and Guatemala (1534), Peru (1536); USA under jurisdiction of India until 1784
St. Augustine, Florida – landed in Florida on Easter Sunday, 1513, with mission to conquer,
govern, and evangelize; Pedro Menendez de Aviles landed at St. Augustine on September
8, 1565, knelt and kissed a cross presented by the chaplain of the expedition, Father
Francisco Lopez (one of four diocesan priests in expedition), followed by Mass of
Thanksgiving: On Saturday the 8th, the General landed with many banners spread, to the sounds of
trumpets and the salutes of artillery. As I had gone ashore the evening before, I took a Cross and went to
meet him, singing the hymn, Te Deum Laudamus (Latin for We Praise You God). The General, followed
by all who accompanied him, marched up to the cross, knelt, and kissed it. A large number of Indians
watched these proceedings and imitated all that they saw done; named Mission Nombre de Dios; oldest
permanently occupied settlement in what is now the USA, first parish founded in the
Americas, first official mission to the Native Americans; location marked by 208-foot
cross; land had first been sited on August 28, Feast of St. Augustine, so his name was
given to the city that was founded; first parish is now Cathedral-Basilica of St. Augustine
Why did natives become Christian?
1) The Missionaries: missionaries were good to them, learned the native languages, created
alphabets, and wrote catechisms
2) Superiority of Christian God – belief that the Christian God was more powerful than
native gods because the Christian conquerors won; natives wanted to be on the
winning side
3) Evangelization – genuinely believed in the gospel
Treatment of Native Americans by Missionaries – Native Americans allowed to be baptized,
marry, and celebrate Reconciliation because they could understand these sacraments, but
not receive Eucharist because the missionaries believed they could not understand it; no
native priests for 300 years because forbidden by king of Spain (native clergy could be
threat to Spanish rule); SJs set up towns for Native Americans in South America, teaching
them trades, setting up schools – made enemies of colonizers who forced SJs to leave
North American Martyrs – French Jesuits sent to the New World to preach and minister
among the Native Americans; worked among Mohawks and Huron in what is now Canada
and NY State; killed by Native Americans for various reasons, including being suspected
of bringing disease and pestilence (St. Isaac Jogues), superstition (St. Rene Goupil –
blessed a boy with sign of cross), and tribal fighting (Brebeuf by Iroquois); Brebeuf wrote
catechism and music (‘Twas in the Moon of Wintertime) in Huron, gave name to game of
lacrosse
St. Isaac Jogues
St. John de Brebeuf
St. John de la Lande
St. Rene Goupil
St. Noel Chabanel
St. Gabriel Lalemant
St. Antoine Daniel
St. Charles Garnier
Las Casas and Sepulveda
Bartolomeo de Las Casas (1474-1566) – Spanish soldier, received land grant in West Indies
(Santo Domingo) and was ordained priest (possibly first priest ordained in the New
World), witnessed actions of slaveholders and conquerors including lining up Native
American slaves in rows to make shooting them more efficient and use of violence to
convert; preached homily in 1514 that people should not live off labor of others let alone
kill them: became OP then bishop; evangelized peacefully and preached kindness and
respect for Native Americans; biographer of Columbus; named Protector of the Indians by
the Pope; Friar Montesino homily on Santo Domingo: “You are in mortal sin, and live and die
therein by reason of the cruelty and tyranny that you practice on these innocent people. Tell me, by what
right or justice do you hold these Indians in such cruel and horrible slavery? Are they not men? Do they not
have rational souls? Are you not bound to love them as you love yourselves? … Be sure that in your
present state you can no more be saved than the Moors or Turks”
Juan Gines de Sepulveda (1489-1573) – Spanish humanist, Aristotelian philosopher, and
theologian; scholar of Greek; argued that Native Americans are “natural slaves” as defined
by Aristotle in Politics: “Those whose condition is such that their function is the use of their bodies and
nothing better can be expected of them, those, I say, are slaves of nature. It is better for them to be ruled
thus. … [the Natives are] as children to parents, as women are to men, as cruel people are from mild
people.”
Pope Paul III and Sublimis Deus – Farnese Pope who commissioned Michelangelo for Last
Supper and St. Peter’s Basilica, approved Jesuits, excommunicated Henry VIII, and called
Council of Trent; issued bull in 1537: “The Indians are truly men and that they are not only capable
of understanding the Catholic Faith but, according to our information, they desire exceedingly to receive it.
Desiring to provide ample remedy for these evils, We define and declare … [that] the said Indians and all
other people who may later be discovered by Christians, are by no means to be deprived of their liberty or
the possession of their property, even though they be outside the faith of Jesus Christ; and that they may and
should, freely and legitimately, enjoy their liberty and the possession of their property; nor should they be in
any way enslaved; should the contrary happen, it shall be null and have no effect.”
The Debate – 1550 in Valladolid in Spain, organized by King Charles V (grandson of
Ferdinand and Isabella); Las Casas and Sepulveda debated:
Sepulveda: 1) Indians are barbarians; 2) Indians committed crimes against natural law (e.d.,
idolatry, cannibalism); 3) Indians oppressed and killed the innocent among themselves;
4) Indians were infidels who needed to be instructed in the Christian faith, by force if
necessary
Las Casas: 1) unity of humankind: Indians are at a different developmental level than
Europeans but are still rational; 2) Spain’s role in the New World was as a spiritual
leader, not economic or political; 3) King Charles V and Pope Paul III have no
jurisdiction to punish Indians because they are pagans, not heretics
no formal decision of who won; had little practical effect because slavery was so deeprooted, but got the conversation started
The Questions
Are Native Americans human beings with an immortal soul?
Can baptized Native Americans be full Christians?
Should Native Americans be forced to be baptized?
Is slavery of any people moral?
What is the relationship between faith and culture?
How can or cannot cultural traditions become part of Christian practice?
The Mind of the Missionaries
Heaven and hell are as real as the world around us
The New Testament promises heaven to those who have been baptized
Christianity brings language, writing, civilization, and many other gifts
The rituals of Catholicism gave meaning and direction to life
CHURCH HISTORY: FROM THE CRUSADES TO THE 21ST CENTURY
WEEK 18: CATHOLICISM IN THE UNITED STATES:
FROM JOHN CARROLL TO JOHN KENNEDY
SPEAKER’S NOTES
Prologue: the Catholic Church in Pre-Colonial America
Spanish Catholics – Southeast and Southwest: St. Augustine, FL (1565); Blessed Junipero
Serra (San Diego, 1769) and Franciscan missionaries in southwest (Santa Fe, 1610)
French Catholics – Great Lakes and Midwest: French Jesuits from Canada (Quebec, 1608),
missionary outposts moving south from Great Lakes to places like Vincennes (1749;
Old Cathedral built in 1826); Fr. Jacques Marquette, SJ (1670s)
Early Missionaries in US Capitol’s Statuary Hall: Marquette, Kino (Arizona), Serra
Catholics in the Colonial Era
Puritans in New England (1620s) – Calvinist movement in England; sola Scriptura; simple,
sparse churches; predestination; advocated church and state combined; sought religious
freedom for themselves alone, intolerant of anyone else (hanged woman for preaching
Quaker thought); Massachusetts statute in 1647: any priest in territory would be killed;
greatly influenced American thought and practice
Anglicans in Virginia (1607) – attempt to establish Church of England as official religion,
mandating daily worship in the church
William Penn (1644-1718) and Pennsylvania (1681) – founded on Quaker ideals of toleration
and peace; peace treaty with Native Americans (1682); freedom of worship to all, but must
be Protestant to be elected to public office; St. Joseph Church, Phila. (1733): only officially
sanctioned Catholic church in the colonies
Catholics and Protestants in Maryland (1634) – Sir George Calvert, Lord Baltimore, a
Catholic, brought religiously diverse group (more Protestants than Catholics) to Maryland,
including three Jesuit priests; named after Queen Henrietta Marie, wife of King Charles I;
Catholics given free religious expression but told to worship quietly; Act of Toleration
(1649) codified religious liberty, repealed by Puritans who took control in 1654; priests
expelled; became royal colony in 1691, with Church of England as the established church;
Catholics denied public worship, vote, and schools until Revolution
Religious Freedom in America? – European settlers came to US East coast to escape religious
persecution in Europe; majority of colonial settlers Protestant; Jonathan Edwards (Puritan
preacher): God prevented the New World from being discovered by Europeans until after
the Reformation so that it could become a Protestant land, free of Rome and Catholic
hierarchy; population in 1700: 2,500 Catholics; 1776: 20,000 Catholics out of 4,500,000
(0.4%)
Catholicism and the New Nation
Charles Carroll (1737-1832) and the Declaration of Independence – Maryland delegate to
Continental Congress, only Catholic signer of Declaration of Independence, first to sign,
last signer to die; went with his cousin John and Ben Franklin to Canada to try to win
support for the colonies; helped select site for Washington, DC, laid cornerstone of
Capitol building; most founding fathers wary of Catholicism (Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin
Franklin) or outright anti-Catholic (Samuel Adams, John Adams); only George
Washington promoted tolerance of Catholics
Bishop John Carroll (1735-1815) and the Diocese of Baltimore (1789) – John Carroll was
Jesuit until their suppression in 1773, when he returned to Maryland from Europe; argued
for religious freedom in the colonies; after Constitution was passed, the Vatican decided to
name a bishop in the new country, but allowed local clergy to vote for their choice in an
attempt to prevent further persecutions; John Carroll elected easily as Bishop of Baltimore
in 1789; had to go to England to be ordained because no bishops in America; opened
seminary in Baltimore (St. Mary’s) in 1791, run by French Suplicians; Mt. St. Mary’s
College in Emmitsburg; Georgetown University in DC; brought religious orders to found
schools and minister in larger cities, like Boston and New York; sent priests and religious
farther west, including Stephen Badin to KY after being first priest ordained in US in 1793;
priorities: locally trained clergy, schools, social services (orphanages, etc.), religious
toleration
Four More Dioceses (1808) – New York, Philadelphia, Boston, and Bardstown – Catholicism
spread quickly in early 19th century
Bishop Simon Bruté (1779-1839) and the Diocese of Vincennes (1834) – Bruté French
Suplician priest, came to Mt. St. Mary’s in Emmitsburg to teach; spiritual director to
Mother Seton; called “the most learned man in America” by John Quincy Adams; named
Bishop of new Diocese of Vincennes in 1834; three priests to minister in seven parishes to
25,000 Catholics in Indiana and eastern third of Illinois; went to France to find priests, 20
returned with him; invited religious orders to the area; known as a simple, holy, wise
bishop
Trusteeism and Persecution – the Church in Philadelphia
The Trustee Controversy – who has control of church property and ability to name pastors?
Federal law required all churches to have a lay board of trustees for these duties; Holy
Trinity Church (German) refused to accept appointment of Irish pastor, leading to schism
from 1796-1802; pastor of St. Mary’s Cathedral, Fr. William Hogan, opposed bishop and
convinced trustees to bar him from the cathedral in 1821; Pope Pius VII forbade such lay
involvement in churches; cathedral was closed because of inability to solve trustee
controversy
Anti-Catholicism – Nativism riots of 1844, most violent in history of American Catholicism;
Nativism: effort to keep America Protestant, distrusted Catholics because in being loyal to
the Pope they were anti-republican and anti-democratic, did not want new wave of
immigrant (especially Irish) who they saw as heretics and agents of the anti-Christ; Catholic
bishop had asked that Catholics be able to read from Douai Bible in schools; churches and
convents burned, many people killed and wounded, governor sent in troops and declared
martial law; Quaker businessman: “It were well if every Popish church in the world were
leveled to the ground”
St. John Neumann (1811-1860), Bishop of Philadelphia – born and educated in Bohemia,
after seminary never ordained because of overabundance of priests in Bohemia, came to
US and ordained priest, joined Redemptorists, bishop of Philadelphia in 1852
Cathedral of Ss. Peter and Paul – built 1846-1864, high windows because of riots
Forty Hours Devotion – began devotion in US
Catholic Schools – opened 100 schools, students increased from 500 to 9,000
A Church of Immigrants and the Catholic Ghetto
Germans and Irish – wave of Catholic immigrants from 1820s-1890s; Catholics in US
increased from 500,000 in 1830 (4% of total population) to 3.1 million in 1860 (10%) to
8.9 million in 1890 (14%); by 1850 Catholics were largest religious denomination; German
triangle between Cincinnati, Milwaukee, and St. Louis; Germans wanted own parishes for
sermons, confessions, and German customs, especially music and processions; antagonism
between German and Irish Catholics; bishops were primarily Irish and wanted to
Americanize Church, Germans resisted and wanted more German bishops
Saint Meinrad Archabbey (1854) – German-speaking monks from Switzerland to minister
to German-speaking people and educate native German-speaking clergy
Italians and Eastern Europeans – second wave of immigrants, from 1890s-1920s; 4 million
Italians, 2 million Polish, 1 million French, 1 million Eastern Europeans (Slovak,
Lithuanian, Ukranian, Czechs), but still 2/3 of bishops in 1900 were Irish
St. Frances Xavier Cabrini (1850-1917) – Italian born and raised, sent by Pope Leo XIII to
US to minister among Italian immigrants, founded 67 institutions (hospitals, orphanages,
schools), became US citizen (first to be canonized); observations on ministries: MC p. 268
The Plenary Councils of Baltimore (1852, 1866, 1884) – age of confirmation, rules for
communion to the sick, qualifications for Catholic burial, fixed amount of Mass stipend,
rules for marriages (cautioned against mixed marriages), made Roman collar mandatory for
priests, made parish schools mandatory in all parishes and for all Catholics: “In addition to
this general legislation [CIC] and to emphasize the seriousness of the responsibility of parents in this
regard, the Bishops of the ecclesiastical province ordained that parents who refuse to send their children to
Catholic schools when they are available are to be denied the Sacraments, and absolution from sin is
reserved to the Bishop of the Diocese” (Bishop Joseph Ritter, 1941)
The Baltimore Catechism – issued in 1885 on order of Third Plenary Council, first
catechism written specifically for Catholics in US, became standard instruction in the faith
until Vatican II
Catholic Schools – public schools founded with Protestant atmosphere, required reading of
Protestant version of Bible; Catholic schools seen as way to preserve and pass on Catholic
faith, 200 schools by 1840
St. Elizabeth Ann Seton (1774-1821) – convert from Episcopalianism, wife and mother,
widow, opened school to ensure proper education of her children, founded Sisters of
Charity in Emmitsburg in 1809, established schools throughout the country, mother of
Catholic schools in US
Lay Organizations – many lay organizations founded with waves of immigrants, provided
Catholic social organizations separate from Protestants and secular groups
The Knights of Columbus (1882) – founded by Fr. Michael McGivney in New Haven, CT,
purpose: “to prevent people from entering Secret Societies, by offering the same, if not
better, advantages to our members. Secondly, to united the men of our Faith throughout
the Diocese of Hartford, that we may thereby gain strength to aid each other in time of
sickness; to provide for decent burial, and to render pecuniary assistance to the families of
deceased members;” named after Christopher Columbus, a Catholic layman and national
hero, to show its loyalty to the country (patriotism) and its nature as a lay-led organization;
principles: charity, unity, fraternity, patriotism
US Catholicism in 1900 – highly devotional, morally rigid and disciplined, intellectual but
ambivalent, institution-building, insular
Expansion, Growth, and Acceptance
US Catholic Church removed from missionary status by Vatican in 1908
Westward Bound – expansion beyond European immigrant centers
St. Katharine Drexel (1858-1955) – missions for Native Americans and African Americans
The Social Movement – first Catholic orphanage (1814, Philadelphia, Sisters of Charity), first
Catholic hospital (1828, Philadelphia, Sisters of Charity)
Dorothy Day (1897-1980) and the Catholic Worker – Day, former communist and convert
to Catholicism, opened houses to serve the poorest of the poor (first in NYC in 1933),
encouraging voluntary poverty, an intellectual life, prayer and sacraments, and pacifism
together with activism
Civil Rights
Cardinal Joseph Ritter (1892-1967) – desegregated Catholic schools in Indianapolis (1943)
and St. Louis (1947) before Supreme Court Decision of 1954; ordered equal access to
healthcare at Catholic hospitals in 1954; in response to opposition: “We realize that many of
these good people are being gravely misled. Consequently, we take this occasion to remind them of their filial
obligation as Catholics to cooperate with the Bishop and Clergy and their fellow Catholics in issues which
are fundamental in our holy Catholic Faith, namely, not only the equality of every soul before Almighty
God, but also obedience to ecclesiastical authority.”
National Catholic Welfare Council/United States Conference of Catholic Bishops – National
Catholic War Council formed during WWI to coordinate Catholic contribution to war
effort (funds and chaplains), first attempt to speak as a unified Catholic Church in the
United States; changed from War to Welfare after end of war to coordinate peacetime
Catholic efforts, advocated government responsibility for welfare of all, especially workers
and poor, immigration, and education; succeeded by NCCB (internal affairs led by
bishops) and USCC (external affairs and public policy) in 1966; combined to form USCCB
in 2001
Economic Justice for All (1986) – US Bishops’ Pastoral letter advocating a preferential
option for the poor in economic and political matters
Political Involvement
John F. Kennedy (1915-1963) – overcame strong anti-Catholic sentiment that had
surrounded Alfred Smith’s candidacy in 1928; gave Catholics feeling they had achieved
equal status in US, showed Catholic community as one of vitality, civic involvement, and
upward mobility; end of Protestant dominance of the country
Public Catholicism
Archbishop Fulton Sheen (1895-1979) – taught both Catholics and non-Catholics what the
Church believes through radio and TV
Catholicism has changed from 1900 … from persecuted Catholic Ghetto to: more prominent
public role and voice through bishops; GI bill allowed poor Catholics to get college
education, moved from ethnic enclaves and integrated in general society; interaction with
multitudes of people, Catholic and non-Catholic, through schools, universities, hospitals,
social service programs; Vatican II – opened door to ecumenism and dialogue with the
modern world
CHURCH HISTORY: FROM THE CRUSADES TO THE 21ST CENTURY
WEEK 19: THE CHURCH IN THE MODERN WORLD –
POPES AND COUNCILS FROM 1869 TO 1978
SPEAKER’S NOTES
Prologue – Papal and Conciliar Documents
Titles – Latin
Types – Conciliar (Constitutions, Declarations, Decrees)
Papal (Apostolic Constitution, Apostolic Letter, Encyclical, motu proprio)
The People and Events: Popes and Councils
First Ecumenical Vatican Council (1869-1870) – 19th century rise of ultramontanism: Romecentered Catholics who saw strong papacy as best guarantee for survival of Church in
secular, anti-Christian world; 700 bishops gathered at behest of Pope Pius IX to pull
together the Church against rationalism; location of Council identified it with the papacy
Papal Infallibility – given ex cathedra, by Pope in his role as supreme pastor; on a matter of
faith or morals; in union with the faith of the whole world; Holy Spirit preserves the
Church, through the person of the Pope, from teaching in error; not inspiration or
impeccability
Immaculate Conception of Mary (1854) – Pope Pius IX
Assumption of Mary (1950) – Pope Pius XII, Bull Munificentissimus Deus: For which
reason, after we have poured forth prayers of supplication again and again to God, and
have invoked the light of the Spirit of Truth, for the glory of Almighty God who has
lavished his special affection upon the Virgin Mary, for the honor of her Son, the immortal
King of the Ages and the Victor over sin and death, for the increase of the glory of that
same august Mother, and for the joy and exultation of the entire Church; by the authority
of our Lord Jesus Christ, of the Blessed Apostles Peter and Paul, and by our own
authority, we pronounce, declare, and define it to be a divinely revealed dogma: that the
Immaculate Mother of God, the ever Virgin Mary, having completed the course of her
earthly life, was assumed body and soul into heavenly glory.
Second Ecumenical Vatican Council (1962-1965) – Purpose: SC 1; 2000+ bishops, first
Council with large representation from outside Europe; first Council with media and mass
communications; first Council with non-Catholic observers; aggiornamento and resourcement;
goals: renewal of the Church, unity of Christians, dialogue with the modern world
Liturgy: Sacrosanctum Concilium (1963)
The Church: Lumen Gentium (1964)
Scripture and Revelation: Dei Verbum (1965)
The Church in the Modern World: Gaudium et Spes (1965)
Pope Leo XIII (1810-1903, Pope from 1878) – Perugia; first Pope elected under secular
Roman rule, seen as short-term compromise pope who would do little, but lived for 25
more years and became very influential around the world in attempting to bring the
Church into the modern age; known as a political pope
Pope St. Pius X (1835-1914, Pope from 1903) – Venice; strived to be a spiritual pope, not a
political one; revised Canon Law (published after his death in 1917)
Pope Benedict XV (1854-1922, Pope from 1914) – Bologna; church diplomat, elected at
beginning of WWI; protested inhuman methods of warfare, proposed peace treaty through
justice rather than military victory, called by the Turks: “the great pope of the world
tragedy … the benefactor of all people, irrespective of nationality or religion.”
Pope Pius XI (1857-1939, Pope from 1922) – Milan; promoted activity of laity, education,
family, marriage, first Pope to use radio for pastoral purposes
Pope Pius XII (1876-1958, Pope from 1939) – Curia; wanted to be Pope of peace; worked to
keep Italy out of WWII and protected Jews; tried to negotiate peace treaties; first Pope
widely known through radio and TV
Blessed Pope John XXIII (1881-1963, Pope from 1958) – Venice; hospital orderly and
chaplain in WWI; nuncio to Turkey, Greece, and France; elected pope at age 77; revived
Christmas custom of visiting hospital and prison; introduced self to Jews as “I am Joseph,
your brother”
Pope Paul VI (1897-1978, Pope from 1963) – Milan; continued Vatican II and implemented
its reforms; Pilgrim Pope, traveling around the world
The Social Movement
Rerum Novarum (On Capital and Labor, Pope Leo XIII, 1891) – context: exploitation and
poverty of workers in Europe and N America, wealth horded by a few; content: workers
have rights (private property, just wage – enough to support a family, join workers
associations, right to work) as well as duties (work well, not harm property of employer,
refrain from violence and rioting, to be thrifty); employers have rights (private property, no
crushing taxes, private societies) and duties (workers are not slaves, uphold dignity of
workers, allowance for religious and family obligations, pay a just wage, give to the poor
after own needs are met); role of Church: speak out on social matters that effect humanity,
use gospel principles to promote reconciliation and unity among people, educate people to
act justly; lasting impact: recognized suffering of the poor and working class and
responsibility of Church to intervene, legitimated trade unions, advanced common human
dignity, began establishment of Catholic social teachings
Quadragesimo Anno (On Reconstructing the Social Order, Pope Pius XI, 1931) – context: 40th
anniversary of Rerum Novarum, follows WWI and beginning of Great Depression,
emergence of established capitalism and communism; content: importance of common
good of society and responsibility of state to promote well-being of all; urged cooperation
between workers and managers; addressed abuses of capitalism and socialism; reiterated
need for good working conditions and just wage; defined social justice (the good of the
individual is part of the common good) and subsidiarity (need for intermediary groups
between individuals and the state); called “one of the greatest documents of modern
times” by FDR and used to support New Deal
Mater et Magistra (On Christianity and Social Progress, Pope John XXIII, 1961) – context: 70th
anniversary of Rerum Novarum, increasing imbalance between poor and rich; content: less
theoretical and more practical than previous encyclicals, recognizes new developments
(atomic energy, space travel, transportation, communications, insurance, social mobility,
public involvement in politics), sets forth requirements for common good for nations
(create employment, care for less privileged, provide for the future), acknowledges
socialization (interdependent social relationships with positive and negative consequences
created by new developments), links human work to spirituality: “That a man should
develop and perfect himself through his daily work … is perfectly in keeping with the plan
of divine Providence … In concluding their human affairs to the best of their ability, they
[the laity] must recognize that they are doing a service to humanity, in intimate union with
God through Christ, and to God’s great glory” (MM 256)
Pacem in Terris (On Establishing Universal Peace, Pope John XXIII, 1963) – context: Cold
War, Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962, first encyclical addressed to “all people of good will;”
content: peace only possible if first work for justice; calls for end to nuclear arms race and
banning of nuclear weapons; advocated fostering of United Nations; sets forth rights and
duties of people, public authorities, states, and world communities (Roncalli had been
involved in drafting UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948); rights: life and
development of life (food, clothing, shelter, rest, medical care, social services), security in
cases of sickness, inability to work, widowhood, old age, unemployment; moral and
cultural values (art, education), respect for one’s person and reputation, religious freedom,
family (educate children, equal rights for men and women), economy (work, humane
working conditions, appropriate participation in management), politics (assembly,
participation), freedom of movement and migration
Gaudium et Spes (On the Church in the Modern World, Second Vatican Council, 1965) –
context: first Pastoral Constitution, addressing the role of the Church externally, in the
world (GS1 and 4); content: human dignity (including freedom to obey one’s conscience),
human community (common good, love one another), the Church is not bound to any one
political, social, or economic system, special areas of concern: marriage and family,
development of culture, economic life and development, just political order, peace and
avoidance of war
Populorum Progressio (On the Development of Peoples, Pope Paul VI, 1967) – context: first
encyclical devoted entirely to international development and developing countries; content:
human solidarity (rich nations must aid developing ones), social justice (“the rectification
of inequitable trade relations between powerful and weak nations”), universal charity
(welcoming emigrant workers, treating those in other countries as equals), restrictions on
private property (“no one is justified in keeping for his exclusive use what he does not
need, when others lack necessities” PP23), warns of abuses of capitalism (when profit is
the main motivator for economic progress), possible justification of violence “where there
is manifest, long-standing tyranny which would do great damage to fundamental personal
rights and dangerous harm to the common good of the country” (PP31)
The Liturgical Movement
St. Pius X and the Liturgy
Tra le Sollecitudini (1903) – liturgy is “the Church’s most important and indispensible
source,” calls for greater liturgical participation
Sacra Tridentina Synodus (1905) – advocated frequent reception of communion, many
Catholics returned to weekly or daily communion, reception of communion seen as
important part of liturgical participation
Quam Singulari (1910) – lowered age of First Communion to “age of reason” and
advocated elaborate celebrations
The Liturgical Movement
Lambert Beauduin, OSB (1873-1960) – monk of Mont César in Belgium; in 1909,
following Pius X, called for full, conscious, active participation of all Christians in the
life of the Church, especially the liturgy; called TS the magna carta of the liturgical
movement
Virgel Michel, OSB (1888-1938) – monk of St. John’s Abbey, Collegeville, MN; met
Beauduin in Europe and brought his ideas to the US; founded Liturgical Press and
Worship; made connection between liturgy and justice, Church as the Body of Christ
Romano Guardini (1885-1968) – Italian/German priest, professor at University of
Munich, wrote The Spirit of the Liturgy in 1918, which informed writings of Pius XII and
Vatican II; emphasized corporate nature of liturgy focused on Christ as opposed to
“modern” focus on the individual: “The liturgy does not say ‘I’ but “We” (p. 36)
Divini Cultis (Apostolic Constitution On Liturgy, Gregorian Chant, and Sacred Music, Pope
Pius XI, 1928) – faithful should not be silent spectators at the liturgy but should
participate, singing with the choir and priest
Pope Pius XII and the Liturgy
Mediator Dei (On the Sacred Liturgy, Pope Pius XII, 1947) – first encyclical devoted
entirely to the liturgy, recognized liturgical movement; upholds Latin liturgy; promotes
participation, “dialogue Mass:” participation is fostered when “the whole congregation, in
accordance with the rules of the liturgy, either answer the priest in an orderly and fitting manner, or
sing hymns suitable to the different parts of the Mass, or do both, or finally in high Masses when they
answer the prayers of the minister of Jesus Christ and also sing the liturgical chant.” (MD 105)
Musicae Sacrae (On Sacred Music, Pope Pius XII, 1955) – approved use of vernacular
hymns during Mass
Permission for Evening Masses (1953) – not possible before because of Eucharistic fast
from midnight
Reform of Holy Week Liturgies (Easter Vigil in 1951, Full Holy Week in 1956) – landmark
accomplishment of liturgical reform (moved from mornings with few faithful to
evenings with full participation)
Sacrosanctum Concilium (On the Sacred Liturgy, Second Vatican Council, 1963) –principles: 1)
the paschal mystery is the heart of the liturgy; 2) many presences of Christ in the liturgy; 3)
liturgy is source and summit of Christian life; 4) full, conscious, active participation of the
faithful; 5) catechesis for clergy and laity; Concrete reforms: 1) new liturgical books; 2)
expanded Scripture readings in new Lectionary; 3) restoration of adult catechumenate; 4)
recovery of pastoral care of the sick; 5) revision of funeral rites; 6) at Mass: restoration of
the homily, prayers of the faithful, communion under both kinds, concelebration Consilium
established following Council to implement reforms and revise liturgical books; SC 14
Mysterium Fidei (On the Eucharist, Pope Paul VI, 1965) – clarify Eucharistic doctrine following
Council, foster Eucharistic devotion
General Norms for the Liturgical Year and Calendar (Pope Paul VI, 1969) – simplify calendar
so that it focuses on the paschal mystery and life of Christ, emphasize importance of
Sundays, limit saints on the universal calendar
The Church and Ecumenism
Pope Benedict XV’s invitation to World Conference on Faith and Order (1919) – invited by
Episcopal Bishop of Western NY, Pope Benedict interested and praised the effort but
declined invitation because he thought Catholic Ecclesiology would not allow it;
unity=return to Catholic Church
Mortalium Animos (On Religious Unity, Pope Pius XI, 1928) – criticized ecumenical movement
and forbade Catholics to participate in it; accused movement of seeking unity through easy
compromise: “the union of Christians can only be promoted by promoting the return to the one true
Church of Christ of those who are separated from it, for in the past they have unhappily left it. … Let,
therefore, the separated children draw nigh to the Apostolic See, set up in the City which Peter and Paul,
the Princes of the Apostles, consecrated by their blood; to that See, We repeat, which is ‘the root and
womb whence the Church of God springs,’ not with the intention and the hope that ‘the Church of the
living God, the pillar and ground of the truth’ will cast aside the integrity of the faith and tolerate their
errors, but, on the contrary, that they themselves submit to its teaching and government. Would that it
were Our happy lot to do that which so many of Our predecessors could not, to embrace with fatherly
affection those children, whose unhappy separation from Us We now bewail.” (MA 10, 12)
Summi Pontificatus (On the Unity of Human Society, Pope Pius XII, 1939): beginnings of more
open approach; shows friendliness to Protestants, acknowledges their goodwill; return still
goal
Visit of Archbishop of Canterbury Geoffrey Fisher to Pope John XXIII (1960) – first meeting
since English Reformation
World Council of Churches (1948) with Catholic representation (1961) – begun at behest of
Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople to promote solidarity in social service, justice, and
peace following WWII; the Catholic Church is not a member but has delegates to
meetings; produced Baptism, Eucharist, and Ministry in 1982
Unitatis Redintegratio (Decree on Ecumenism, Second Vatican Council, 1964): “Such division
openly contradicts the will of Christ, scandalizes the world, and damages that most holy
cause, the preaching of the Gospel to every creature (UR 1).” – John XXIII established
Secretariat for Promoting Christian Unity in 1960, invited ecumenical observers to the
Council; the one true Church “subsists in the Catholic Church;” goals of ecumenical
dialogue: common Eucharist, in the unity of one Church; affirms that the Catholic Church
has entered into the ecumenical movement; calls non-Catholic Christian communities
churches or ecclesial communities rather than sects or heretical bodies
Condemnations of 1054 lifted by Pope Paul VI and Patriarch Athenagoras (1965) – dialogue
with Orthodox Churches becomes most fruitful
Establishment of Anglican Roman Catholic Dialogue (1966) – first of several dialogues with
other churches and ecclesial communities
CHURCH HISTORY: FROM THE CRUSADES TO THE 21ST CENTURY
WEEK 20: THE CHURCH OF THE 21ST CENTURY –
A WORLDWIDE COMMUNITY OF BELIEVERS
SPEAKER’S NOTES
The Church in Africa
The History of the Church in Africa – early Church: Alexandria (Patriarchal See), St. Anthony
(hermits and earliest monasticism), Sts. Augustine and Cyprian (theologians), Sts. Perpetua
and Felicity (martyrs); Christianity disappeared as Islam spread beginning in 7th century;
Christianity not reintroduced until European colonization in 19th century
St. Charles Lwanga (1865-1886) and the Ugandan Martyrs – Anglican and Catholic
missionaries arrived in Uganda in 1879; native people had to change many parts of their
lives in order to become Christian, such as polygamy; openness to Christianity often
followed lead of tribal kings; King Mwanga was hostile to Christianity and threatened by
idea of the Christian God as king and executed at least 49 Christians between 1885 and
1887, including Charles Lwanga, head of the king’s pages and a lay catechist; martyrs
became source of inspiration for Christians in Uganda; 22 Catholic martyrs canonized in
1964 during Vatican II – first saints of modern Africa; Pope Paul VI became first pope to
visit sub-Saharan Africa when he visited the site of the martyrdoms in Uganda in 1969;
today: 11 million Catholics in Uganda (42% of total population), many places doubled in
last 25 years
St. Josephine Bakhita (1868-1947) and the Church in Sudan – born to wealthy Sudanese
family, sold into slavery at age 9, purchased by Italian consul and taken to Italy; became
Catholic at age 22 in Italy and entered religious life (Canossian Daughters of Charity);
servant of the poor; died in Italy; canonized in 2000 as only saint originally from Sudan;
today: 4 million Catholics in Sudan (9% of total population), but higher percentage in
South Sudan (60% in Archdiocese of Juba, doubled in last 25 years to 450,000)
The Future of the Church in Africa – numbers growing dramatically (Archdiocese of Nairobi,
Kenya, tripled Catholic population in last 25 years), fastest growing Catholic communities
in the world; 12 voting Cardinals; world’s largest seminary in Nigeria; two Synods of
Bishops (1994 and 2006); challenges: poverty, AIDS, need for native-born clergy, wars and
violence
The Church in China
The History of the Church in China – early Jesuit missionaries (Matteo Ricci, 1581), using
“sweet conversion,” Mass in Chinese, banned in 1704; emperor saw Pope’s decision to ban
Mass in Chinese language as an insult to Chinese culture and expelled missionaries;
missionaries returned in mid-1800s, especially women religious, who set up schools,
clinics, orphanages; 1949, Maw Tse-tung created People’s Republic of China, 4 million
Catholics in China at the time; imprisoned or expelled all foreign missionaries, dissolved
Christian churches – need for Chinese nationalism and removal of all that is foreign and
corrupt; Catholics went underground until beginning of state-sponsored churches in 1958
Two Catholic Churches in China? Official government-sponsored church with bishops
appointed by the government: valid sacraments, but not in communion with Rome;
underground Catholic Church with bishops appointed by Pope: not recognized by
government; some coming together: bishops appointed by government, ordained without
papal mandate, then request legitimization from Holy See; Letter of Pope Benedict XVI,
2007, to Catholic Church in China: open dialogue with government, recognize validity of
state-appointed bishops but without full communion with Rome, possibility of legitimately
joining state-sponsored Church: attempt to recognize a single Catholic Church in China;
approx. 3 million Catholics today (0.75% of total population)
The Church in Australia
The History of the Church in Australia – 750 British and Irish convicts sent to Australia as
penal colony in 1788; Irish priest who was a convict celebrated first Mass in 1803 and
along with two other convicts who were priests ministered among the prisoners on-andoff while they were there; 1820, first permanent Catholic chaplain arrived; by 1840s
majority of Australians were free settlers, religious orders began to arrive; because large
number of settlers (free and prisoners) were Irish, large percentage of Australians were
Catholic; 30% Catholic today
St. Mary MacKillop (1842-1909) – daughter of poor Scottish immigrants to Australia, teacher,
opened free Catholic school for poor in southern Australia, founded Australia’s first
religious order (Sisters of St. Joseph and the Sacred Heart), excommunicated by bishop
who believed false stories about her independence and social ideas, reinstated when bishop
realized accusations were baseless, canonized in 2010 as first Australian-born saint
The Century of Martyrs
Study published in Italy in 2002: 65% of all martyrs in history of Church died in 20th Century
(45.5 million of 70 million), most severe in Africa (most recently in Sudan), in Middle East,
Asia, former USSR, Spain, Mexico
St. Maximilian Kolbe (1894-1941) – Polish, Conventual Franciscan; saw vision of Mary: “I
asked the Mother of God what was to become of me. Then she came to me holding two
crowns, one white, the other red. She asked if I was willing to accept either of these
crowns. The white one meant that I should persevere in purity, and the red that I should
become a martyr. I said that I would accept them both.” Founded Immaculata Movement,
started newspaper (Knight of the Immaculate) to fight religious apathy, missionary to
Japan and India, returned to Polish monastery he founded (800 men, largest in the world),
arrested by Nazis for harboring Jews and publishing anti-Nazi writings, sent to Auschwitz,
volunteered to die in place of husband and father, called martyr of charity
Blessed Franz Jägerstätter (1907-1943) – Austrian, father killed in WWI, worked in iron
foundries, led wild life in early 20s but settled down in late 20s, became peasant farmer,
married, three children, sacristan in parish church, attended daily Mass, vocal critic of
Nazis, refused to serve in Nazi army because of his faith, arrested, beheaded, beatified in
2007
Blessed Miguel Augustin Pro (1891-1927) – Mexican, born to wealthy family, developed love
of poor, became Jesuit, exiled during Mexican Revolution, returned to Mexico using
disguises to conduct ministry at a time when persecution of the Church was a government
policy, falsely accused of bombing attempt, arrested and executed without trial, forgave his
executioners as he was about to be shot, shouting “Long live Christ the King!”
th
20 Century Martyrs at Westminster Abbey: Grand Duchess Elizabeth of Russia, Manche
Masemola of South Africa (killed in 1928 by her parents at the age of 16), Maximilian
Kolbe, Lucian Tapiede of Papua New Guinea (killed during the Japanese invasion),
Dietrich Bonhoeffer, Esther John, Presbyterian evangelist from Pakistan (killed by radical
Muslim), Martin Luther King, Wang Zhiming of China (killed during the Chinese cultural
revolution), Janani Luwum of Uganda (killed for being an Anglican Archbishop), Oscar
Romero
Lay Spirituality
Blessed Pier Giorgio Frassati (1901-1925) – born in Turin, Italy, to rich and influential family;
average student, outstanding athlete and mountain climber, known as “terror” for his
practical jokes; studied engineering; devoted Catholic, involved in charitable works and
promoting Eucharistic Adoration; contracted polio while working among the sick; died at
age 24; beatified in 1990 as a “man of the beatitudes”
Blesseds Maria (1884-1965) and Luigi (1880-1951) Beltrame Quattrochi – married couple,
four children; used home for refugees during WWII; Luigi: deputy attorney general of
Italy; Maria: nurse, education professor; beatified in 2001 as first married couple beatified
together; noted for their holiness as a married couple
St. Gianna Beretta Molla (1922-1962) – from Milan, Italy; physician and surgeon, working
especially among mothers, children, elderly, and poor; avid skier; married Peter Molla, four
children; died shortly after birth of fourth child when she refused to have surgery during
pregnancy to remove an ovarian cyst; canonized in 2004
The Third Christian Millenium
Blessed Pope John Paul II (1920-2005) – Polish, professor of moral theology, Archbishop of
Krakow, helped draft Gaudium et Spes during Vatican II, elected Pope in 1978; made 104
pastoral visits outside Italy; established World Youth Days; seen by more people in person
than anyone else in history (17.6 million alone at Wednesday General Audiences); legacy:
canonization of saints, work with youth, dialogue with Jews and Christians, strengthening
of moral teaching authority of Church, Great Jubilee, spiritual emphasis (Year of Rosary,
Year of Eucharist), promulgated new CCC and CIC
Pope Benedict XVI (1927-present) – German, professor of dogmatic theology, peritus at
Vatican II; Archbishop of Munich; secretary of CDF from 1981; elected Pope in 2005;
priorities: New Evangelization of Europe, dialogue with Orthodox Churches, deepening
of spirituality, social justice concerns, unity of Church
The 21st Century Church – Statistics (2009)
Worldwide
Catholic Population – 1.18 Billion (17% of worldwide population)
(50% Americas, 24% Europe, 15% Africa, 11% Asia)
Largest Catholic Countries: Brazil, Mexico, Philippines, USA, Italy
Priests – 410,593 (1 priest for 2,874 Catholics)
Deacons – 38,155
Women Religious – 729,371
United States of America
Catholic Population – 64.6 million (22.6% of US Population; 5% of worldwide Catholics)
Priests – 44,906 (1 priest for 1,439 Catholics; 11% of worldwide priests)
Deacons – 14,362 (37% of deacons worldwide)
Women Religious – 71,250 (10% of worldwide women religious)
Archdiocese of Indianapolis
Catholic Population – 236,000 (9.5% of total population)
Priests –144 Diocesan (1 priest for 1,639 Catholics); total 272 priests in Archdiocese
Deacons – 27
Women Religious – 700 (2,544 in 1966)
The 21st Century Church – The Challenges
Boston College Church in the 21st Century Center
Roles and Relationships in the Contemporary Church – role of laity in daily life and
administration of churches; roles of priests and deacons; aging of clergy; changing role of
vowed religious; strengthening marriage and family
Sexuality in Catholic Teaching and the Catholic Community – response to clergy sexual abuse
crisis; homosexuality and gay marriage; contraception; Theology of the Body
Handing on the Faith to Young People – disappearance of close-knit Catholic communities;
challenge of secularism and consumer mentality; ministry with youth and young adults
The Catholic Intellectual Tradition – how can the riches of Catholic theology and morality
inform the world and improve the world; how can Catholic teaching be brought into
dialogue with a pluralistic society
The New Evangelization
What is the New Evangelization? – presenting the same Christian gospel with new ardor, new
methods, and new expression, especially in traditionally Christian areas where the faith is
being abandoned or is receding
Pontifical Council for Promoting the New Evangelization – Established 2010: “In the course
of history, this mission has taken on new forms and employed new strategies according to
different places, situations, and historical periods. In our own time, it has been particularly
challenged by an abandonment of the faith—a phenomenon progressively more manifest
in societies and cultures which for centuries seemed to be permeated by the Gospel. …
there has been a troubling loss of the sense of the sacred, which has even called into
question foundations once deemed unshakeable such as faith in a provident creator God,
the revelation of Jesus Christ as the one Saviour, and a common understanding of basic
human experiences: i.e., birth, death, life in a family, and reference to a natural moral law.
Even though some consider these things a kind of liberation, there soon follows an
awareness that an interior desert results whenever the human being, wishing to be the sole
architect of his nature and destiny, finds himself deprived of that which is the very
foundation of all things.” (Pope Benedict XVI, Ubicumque et Semper, 2010)
Pastoral Priorities (Pope John Paul II, Novo Mellennio Ineunte, 2001) – Holiness, Prayer, Sunday
Eucharist, Sacrament of Reconciliation, The Primacy of Grace, Listening to the Word,
Proclaiming the Word